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Greenhouse  Construction 

A  COMPLETE  MANUAL 

OX  THE 

Building,  Heating:,  Ventilating-  and  Arrangement 


OF 


GREENHOUSES 

AND  THE 

Construction  of  Hotbeds,  Frames  and  Plant  Pits 

BY 

L.  R  TAFT 

Professor  of  Horticulture  ami  Landscape    Ourde/iinj,  Michigan  AyH 
vuUurul  CulleyG 


ILLUSTRATED 


NEW  YORK 

ORAi^g:b  judd  company 

1894 


Copyright,  1893, 
Bt  orange  judd  company 


sX 


PREFACE. 


In  the  summer  of  1889  the  writer  erected  two  forc- 
ing liouses  for  the  Miciiigan  State  Experiment  Station. 
They  were  designed  to  be  experimental  in  their  construc- 
tion, and  afforded  means  for  a  comparative  test  of  vari- 
ous methods  of  building,  glazing  and  ventilating,  and  of 
the  relative  merits  of  steam  and  hot  water  for  green- 
house heating.  "When  the  houses  had  been  used  one 
season,  a  bulletin  was  issued,  in  which  the  construction 
was  described,  and  the  merits  or  demerits  of  the  methods 
used  were  jDointed  out.  During  the  winter  a  test  of  the 
heating  systems  was  made,  and  the  results  were  given  in 
the  same  bulletin.  The  report  Avas  widely  distributed, 
and  was  copied  in  full  by  many  horticultural  and  engi- 
neering periodicals,  while  others  gave  it  favorable  notices, 
which  led  hundreds  of  irrespective  builders  of  green- 
houses, in  all  parts  of  the  country,  to  apply  for  copies, 
and  made  a  second  edition  necessary.  From  nearly 
every  State  in  the  CTnion  came  letters,  asking  advice 
upon  various  points  in  greenhouse  construction  and 
heating,  all  of  which  indicated,  not  only  that  there  was 
a  widespread  desire  for  information  on  these  subjects, 
but  that  the  sources  of  information  were  quite  limited. 

At  the  request  of  the  publishers,  the  preparation  of 
this  book  was  undertaken,  and  the  attempt  has  been 
made  to  present  the  best  methods  of  greenhouse  con- 
struction. 

Although  with  fifteen  years'  experience  in  green- 
house management  and  a  large  experience  in  greenhouse 


iV  PEEFACE. 

construction,  all  of  which  lias  heen  in  connection  with 
the  agricultural  colleges  of  various  states,  where  there 
was  an  excellent  opportunity  of  testing  the  different 
wrinkles  in  construction  that  have  heen,  from  time  to 
time,  brought  out,  the  writer  has  availed  himself  of 
various  opportunities,  during  the  past  three  years,  to 
visit  the  leading  floral  and  vegetable  growing  establish- 
ments of  more  than  a  dozen  large  cities,  between  Boston 
and  St.  Louis,  and  has  made  a  ca^'eful  study  of  the 
methods  employed.  Many  of  the  leading  florists  have 
submitted  their  ideas,  either  in  personal  interviews  or 
by  correspondence,  and  from  the  pages  of  the  American 
Gardening,  American  Florist,  Gardetiing,  American 
Agriculturist,  and  other  periodicals,  much  useful  infor- 
mation has  been  obtained. 

Some  of  the  firms  that  are  engaged  in  the  building 
and  heating  of  greenhouses  have  been  in  business  for 
many  years,  and  have  had  a  wide  experience.  From 
them,  too,  many  valuable  points  have  been  received,  and 
it  is  to  their  kindness  that  we  are  indebted  for  the  illus- 
trations of  the  exteriors  and  interiors  of  some  of  the 
most  noted  houses  in  the  country. 

The  information  here  presented  has,  therefore,  come 
to  us  from  a  variety  of  reliable  sources,  and,  instead  of 
being  the  author,  the  writer  can  only  claim  to  be  the 
editor  of  this  collaborative  book. 

With  the  multitude  of  persons  who  have  aided  us  in 
its  preparative,  it  is  impossible  to  render  acknowledg- 
ment to  them  individually,  but  to  each  and  all  are 
extended  the  hearty  thanks  of 

L.  R.  TAFT. 
Agricultural  College,  Mich. 


CONTENTS. 


Preface,   ..........      iil 

CHAPTER  I. 
History  of  Greenhouses,        ......  l 

CHAPTER  II. 
Different  Forms  of  Greenhouses— Even  Span,  Lean-to, 

Side-hill,  .........  G 

CHAPTER  III. 
Three-Quarter  Span  Houses,  ......  IG 

CHAPTER    IV. 
Location  and  Arrangement,       ......        21 

CHAPTER  V. 
Greenhouse  Walls,         .......  24 

CHAPTER    VI. 
Construction  of  the  Roof,         ......        33 

CHAPTER  VII. 
Combined  Wood  and  Iron  Construction,.  ...  40 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
Iron  Houses,      .........        44 

CHAPTER   IX. 
The  Pitch  of  the  Roof,  .......  49 

CHAPTER  X. 
Glass  and  Glazing,    ........        56 

CHAPTER   XI. 
Glazing— Methods  and  Materials,  ....  59 

CHAPTER  XII. 
Ventilators,      .........        C7 

CHAPTER  XIII. 
Greenhouse  Benches,      .......  7G 

CHAPTER  XIV. 
Painting  and  Shading,       .......        85 

CHAPTER  XV. 
Greenhouse  Heating,      .......  90 

CHAPTER  XVI. 
Pipes  and  Piping,       ........        97 

V 


Vi  GEEENHOUSE    CONSTRUCTION. 

CHAPTER  XVII. 
Size  and  Amount  of  Piping,     ......         104 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 
Hot  Water  Heaters,  .......      115 

CHAPTER  XIX. 
Steam  Heating,        ........         123 

CHAPTER  XX. 
Comparative  Merits  of  Steam  and  Hot  Water,  .  .      129 

CHAPTER  XXI. 
Heating  Small  Conservatories,      .  .       •  ■ ...  134 

CHAPTER  XXIT. 
Commercial  Establishments,     .  .  .  .  .  .139 

CHAPTER    XXni. 

Rose  Houses,  .........         142 

CHAPTER  XXIV. 

Lettuce  Houses,        ........      154 

CHAPTER  XXV. 

Propagating  House,         .......         157 

CHAPTER  XXVI. 
Hotbeds,   ..........       159 

CHAPTER  XXVII. 
Conservatories,      ........         ICG 

CHAPTER  XXVIII. 
The  Arrangement  of  Greenhouses,  .  .         .  .185 

CHAPTER  XXIX. 
Glass  Structures  for  Amateurs,    .....         195 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Fig.    1.  Englisli  Greenhouse  of  17th  Century, 

2.  First  American  Greenhouse, 

3.  Model  Greenhouse  of  1835, 

4.  First  Cliicago  Greenhouse, 

5.  Even  Span  Greenhouse, 

6.  Ridge  and  Furrow  Houses, 

7.  Lean-to  House,    .... 

8.  Side-Hill  Houses. 

9.  Three-Quarter  Span  House,    . 

10.  Curvilinear  House,    . 

11.  Grout  Wall 

12.  Grout  and  Wooden  Wall,    . 

13.  KricU  Wall  Willi  Wooden  Sill, 

14.  Brick  Wall  with  Iron  Sill,  . 

15.  Wooden  Wall 

16.  Wooden  Wall  with  Glass  Side,     . 

17.  Iron  Post  and  Sill, 

18.  Sash  Bar  with  Drip  Gutters, 

19.  Plain  Sash  Bar 

20.  21,  22.    Sash  Bars  for  Butted  Glass, 

23.  Plain  Sash  Bar  for  Bulled  (Jlass,     . 

24.  Greenhouse  with  PorlaMt^  Roof, 

25.  Elevation  and  Details  tor  Wooden  Roof 

26.  Details  for  Ii-on  and  W^ood  Roof, 

27.  Gas  Pipe  Purlin, 

28.  Iron  Bracket  for  Roof, 

29.  Iron  Posts  and  Braces, 
30,31.    Helliwell  Patent  Glazing, 

32.  Paradigm  Glazing, 

33,  34.    Galvanized  Iron  Sash  Bars,     . 

35.  Effect  of  Glass  at  Different  Angles, 

36.  Short  Span  to  the  South  Houses, 

37.  Glazing  Points,    .... 

38.  Paint  Bulb,       .... 

39.  Ives'  Putty  Machine,    . 

40.  Gasser's  (ilazing  Strip, 

41.  New  Methods  of  Glazing, 

42.  Arrangement  of  Ventilators, 

43.  A  Simple  "Ventilating  Ai)paratus,    . 

44.  New  Departure  Ventilating  Apparatus 

45.  Standard  Ventilating  Apparatus,    . 

46.  Challenge  Ventilating  Machine, 

47.  A  Cheap  Fixture, 

48.  Outside  Shafting, 

49.  Wooden  Benches, 

50.  Gas  Pipe  Bench  Supports, 

51.  Mendenhall's  Bench,     . 

52.  Hill's  Bench,    .... 

53.  Angle  Iron  Bench, 

vii 


2 
3 
3 
4 
7 
10 
13 
15 
17 
19 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
34 
34 
34 
35 
36 
39 
41 
42 
42 
43 
46 
47 
48 
50 
54 
61 
64 
65 
65 
66 
68 
70 
71 
72 
73 
74 
75 
77 
78 
79 
80 
81 


VIU 


GKEENHOUSE    CONSTRUCTION. 


54.  Bench  Tiles,     .... 

55.  Wiglit's  Patent  Bench, 

56.  Wood  and  Slate  Bench, 

57.  'i'lie  Slope  of  the  Pipes, 

58.  Under  Bench  Piping  (wide  house), 

59.  Under  Bench  Piping  (narrow  lioiise), 

60.  Overhead  Piping  (short  span  to  tlie  south  house), 

61.  Conibiiied  Overhead  and  Under  Jiencli  Piping, 

62.  Combined  Piping  for  Even  Span  House, 

63.  Combined  Piping  for  Forcing  House, 

64.  Arrangement  of  the  Coils, 

65.  Carniody  Hot  Water  Heater,  . 

66.  Hitcliings'  Heater,    . 

67.  Weathercd's  Conical  Heater, 
68,69,70.     SpciH-c  Heater, 

71.  Furman  i'ortalile  Heater, 

72.  Furman  Brick  Set  Heater, 

73.  Hitchings'  Base  Burning  Heater,     . 

74.  Interior  of  Steam  Heated  House,   " 

75.  Barnard  Heater, 

76.  Plan  for  a  Small  Establishment, 

77.  Modern  Rose  Houses  (wooil), 

78.  Extensive  Rose  Houses  (iroii), 

79.  Ground  Plan  of  Above, 

80.  Section  of  Iron  Rose  House, 

81.  Interior  of  Rose  House  (iron), 

82.  Section  of  Rose  House  (wood), 

83.  Section  of  Lean-to  Lettuce  House, 

84.  Hotbed  Frame, 

85.  Hotbed  with  Sash. 

86.  Hotbed  Shutter, 

87.  Hotbed  Yard, 

88.  Cold  Pit,  .... 

89.  Large  Attached  Conservatory, 

90.  Modern  Detached  Conservatory, 

91.  Conservatory  (section), 

92.  Interior  of  Conservatory,   . 

93.  Palm  House  of  Pitcher  &  Manda, 

94.  Stove  Room  (section), 

95.  Combined  Stove  and  Orchid  House, 

96.  Orchid  House  (section), 

97.  Forcing  Grapery  (section), 

98.  Even  S"^>an  Grapery  (section), 

99.  Curvilinear  Grapery  (section), 

100.  Greenhouses  of  Michigan  Agricultural  College 

101.  Ground  Plan  of  Sam&,  . 

102.  Range  of  Houses  by  Weathered, 

103.  Range  of  Houses  by  Hitchings, 

104.  Ground  Plan  of  Hitchings  Range, 

105.  Range  by  Lord  &  Burnham  Co., 
100.  Ground  Plan  of  Above, 

107.  Forcing  House  (section), 

108.  Rose  House  (section), 

109.  Veranda  Conservatory, 
liO.  Veranda  Conservatory  (section), 

111.  Small  Attached  Conservatory, 

112.  A  Cheap  House, 

113.  Portable  Conservatory, 

114.  Portable  Conservatory  (section), 

115.  Ground  Plan  of  Basement  Pit, 

116.  Details  for  Basement  Pit,  . 

117.  Cellarway  Conservatory, 

118.  Cellarway  Conservatory  (section). 


GREENHOUSE   CONSTRUCTION. 


CHAPTEK  I . 

HISTORY   OF    GREENHOUSES. 


It  is  known  that  the  old  Eomans  were  able  to  secure 
fresh  fruits  and  vegetables,  for  their  banquets,  the  year 
round,  by  both  retarding  and  accelerating  their  growth. 
As  an  indication  of  their  skill,  it  is  said  that  they  even 
forced  the  cucumber.  They  possessed  no  elaborate 
structures  for  this  purpose,  but  grew  them  in  pits  cov- 
ered with  large  slabs  of  talc.  Heat  was  obtained  from 
decomposing  manure,  and  by  means  of  hot  air  flues. 
They  are  believed  to  have  had  peach  and  grape  houses, 
and  it  is  claimed  l)y  some,  that  hot  water  in  bronze  pipes 
was  used  to  warm  them. 

In  modern  times  the  structures  have  undergone  a 
gradual  development,  from  houses  containing  no  glass 
whatever,  to  the  forcing  house  of  to-day,  which  is 
nearly  ninety-five  per  cent,  of  glass.  The  first  house  of 
which  we  have  any  record,  was  built  by  Solomon  de 
Cans,  at  Heidelberg,  Germany,  about  1619.  It  was 
used  to  shelter  over  four  hundred  orange  trees  planted  in 
the  ground,  during  the  winter,  and  consisted  of  wooden 
shutters  placed  over  a  span  roof  framework,  so  as  to 
form  the  walls  and  roof.  It  was  warmed  by  means  of 
four  large  furnaces,  and  ventilated  by  opening  small 
shutters  in  tlie  sides  and  roof.  In  the  spring  the  frame- 
work was  taken  down.     This  structure,  in  size,  com- 

1 

m.9         ^^         Oa        J..      /^^M^ttM 


2  GREENHOUSE    CONSIRUCTIOK. 

pared  well  with  the  greenhouses  of  to-day,  as  it  was  two 
liundred  and  eighty  feet  long  and  thirty-two  feet  wide. 
On  account  of  the  expense  of  putting  up  and  taking 
down  this  framcM'ork,  and  of  keeping  it  in  repair,  it 
was  replaced  by  a  structure  of  freestone.  This  liad  an 
o[>aque  roof,  and  tlie  openings  in  the  sides  ^'ere  closed 
with  sliutters  during  tlie  winter.  In  1G84  Ray  describes 
a  glass  house  (Fig.  1)  used  in  the  Apothecaries'  Garden, 


FIG.   1.       ENGLISH    GREENHOUSE   OF   17tH    CENTURY. 


Chelsea^  England,  which  evidently  was  quite  similar  to 
the  one  at  Heidelberg,  except  that  it  had  glass  windows 
in  the  side  walls  ;  the  roof,  however,  was  opaque.  It 
was  not  until  1717  that  glass  roofs  were  used,  and  from 
that  time,  for  one  hundred  years,  few  improvements 
were  made. 

During  the  first  part  of  the  present  century  consid- 
erable attention  Avas  given  to  the  slope  of  the  roof,  and 
in  1815  the  hemispherical  form  was  first  used.  Before 
the  use  of  glass  for  the  roof  became  common,  the  green- 
houses often  occupied  the  first  floor  of  two-story  struc- 
tures, while  the  second  floor  was  occupied  by  the  gar- 
dener as  a  residence,  or  was  used  as  a  storeroom. 

The  earlier  greenhouses  of  this  country  were  not 
unlike  those  used  in  Europe  during  the  eighteenth  con- 


HISTORY    OF   GREENHOUSES. 


tury.     In  the  American  Florist  for  Feb.  15,  1887,  is 
tlie  description  and  figure  of  wliat  is  supposed  to  be  the 


FIG,    2.       FIRST    AMERICAN    GREENHOUSE. 

first  American  groenliousc  (Fig,  2),  it  having  been 
erected  in  New  York,  in  1764,  for  James  Beekman. 
Although  the  structures  were  less  elaborate,  the  Ameri- 
can budders  took  up  and  utilized  any  improvements  ni 
construction  and  heating  that  were  bronght  out  in 
Europe. 

In  Hovey's  J\Jaja'.i7ie  of  Horticulture,  for  January 

1836,  is  a  descrijition  of  a 
model  greenhouse,  erected 
by  Mr.  Sweetser,  of  Cam- 
bridgeport;  Mass.  From 
Fig  3,  in  which  a  cross  sec- 
tion is  shown,  it  will  be 
seen  that  glass  was  used  ni 
the  entire  south  slope  of 
the  roof  and  in  the  south 
wall.  The  north  slope  of 
3.  MODEL  GREENHOUSE  the  roof  and  the  north  wall 
OF  1835.  were  of  wood.     The  heat- 

ing system  combinea  tiie  flue  with  hot  water.     The  hot 


FI( 


i  GKEEifHOUSE   CONSTIU'CTION". 

water  system  consisted  of  an  open  copper  kettle,  or 
beater  (/),  from  the  top  of  which  a  four-inch  copper 
pipe  passed  across  the  end  of  the  house,  and  then  along 
the  opjwsite  side,  to  a  large  copper  reservoir  (e) ;.  the 
return  pipe  was  located  on  a  level,  just  beneath  the  flow, 
entering  the  boiler  near  the  bottom.  The  flue  was  car- 
ried to  one  side  until  it  reached  the  walk  (c),  ^ind  then 
ran  under  this  to  the  other  end  of  the  house,  Avhere  it 
was  connected  with  the  chimney  (d). 

In    the   West,    greenhouse   construction    was   more 
backward,   and  yet,  as  early  as  183G,  a  Mr.    Thomas, 


FIG.   4.       FIRST    CHICAGO    GREEJSTJOUSE. 


according  to  the  American  Florist,  erected  one  in  Chi- 
cago, of  which  an  illustration  is  shown  in  Fig.  4.  As 
will  be  seen  from  the  engraving,  the  three-quarter  span 
houses  had  even  then  come  into  use,  although  the  entire 
north  slope,  and  half  of  the  south  slope  of  the  roof, 
were  of  wood. 

Previous  to  1850  there  were  comparatively  few 
greenhouses  m  the  country,  and,  naturally,  there  were 
no  extensive  builders.  Among  the  first  to  engage  in  the 
business  was  Frederic  A.  Lord,  who  erected  liis  first 
houses  in  Buffalo,  in  1855.  In  1870  he  removed  to 
Irvington,  and  in  1872  entered  Into  partnership  with 
AV.  A.  Burnham,  under  the  firm  name  of  Lord  & 
Burnliam.     In  1883  the  firm  of  Loid  &  Burnham  Co.  was 


niSTOllY    OF    GREENHOUSES.  5 

incorporated.  The  earlier  houses  erected  by  this  firm 
were,  for  the  most  part,  m  the  curvilinear  style,  which, 
in  a  slightly  modified  form,  is  still  used  by  them  for 
large  conservatories. 

In  1888  the  firms  of  Hitchings  &  Co.,  and  of  Thos. 
W.  Weathered's  Sons,  both  of  New  York  City,  who  for 
many  years  had  been  engaged  in  greenhouse  heating, 
added  departments  for  greenhouse  construction.  John 
C.  Monmger,  of  Chicago,  is  one  of  the  best  known  build- 
ers in  the  West.  The  systems  of  construction  used  by 
the  three  first  mentioned  firms  are  much  alike,  their 
better  houses  being  put  up  with  iron  sills,  posts,  rafters, 
purlins,  etc.,  while  the  sash  bars  are  of  cypress,  although 
many  of  their  commercial  establishments  have  no  iron 
in  their  construction. 

The  puttylcoS  glazing  systems  have  been  but  little 
used,  except  in  large  conservatories.  The  principal 
firms  controlling  them  are  the  Plenty  Horticultural 
Works  of  New  York  City,  and  A.  Edgecomb  Rendle  &  Co. 
of  Philadelphia  and  Chicago,  each  of  whom  have  been 
in  business  for  some  ten  years,  and  have  erected  a  num- 
ber of  large  establishments.  They  also  use  the  wooden 
sash  bars  and  putty  glazing.  Nearly  every  large  city 
has  one  or  more  dealers  in  structural  iron  work,  who  have 
taken  up  greenhouse  construction.  Most  of  them  use 
galvanized  iron,  with  or  witliout  a  steel  core,  for  sash 
bars.  The  use  of  iron  for  the  rafters  and  sash  bars  of 
fixed  roofs,  has  been  quite  general  in  England  for  eighty 
years,  as  its  permanency  is  there  thought  to  more  than 
counterbalance  the  extra  expense,  breakage  of  glass,  loss 
of  heat,  drip  and  leakage,  with  this  system,  as  compared 
with  wooden  supports.  In  this  country  the  winters  are 
much  more  severe,  and,  the  conditions  being  less  favor- 
able for  iron  roofs,  their  use  is  not  regarded  with  favor 
by  commercial  florists. 

We  have  no  description  of  the  furnaces  used  by  Dr. 
Cans,  in  his  orangerv,  but  Evelvn  tells  us  that  the  Chel- 


6  GREENUOLiSE    CONSTRUCTION. 

sea  greenhouse  was  heated  by  an  open  charcoal  fire  built 
m  a  hole  in  the  ground.  Later  on,  a  ciiimney  was  car- 
ried through  the  greenhouse,  and  this  developed  into 
the  greenhouse  flue,  which  is  still  in  use.  Although 
steam  was  tried  for  heating  greenhouses,  in  the  last 
quarter  of  the  eighteenth  century,  it  was  not  much  used 
until  about  1816,  when,  for  twenty  years,  it  was  in  high 
favor,  but  was  superseded  by  hot  water,  which,  in  turn, 
has,  during  the  last  few  years,  been  crowded  out,  in 
large  plants,  by  steam. 


CHAPTER  II. 

DIFFERENT    FORMS    OF    GREENHOUSES. 

Wliile  the  various  glass  structures  are  generally  dis- 
tinguished according  to  their  uses,  as  rose  houses,  palm 
houses,  stove  houses,  graperies,  etc.,  for  our  present  pur- 
pose it  will  be  well  to  first  consider  them  from  the  build- 
ers' standpoint,  as  lean-to,  span  roof,  three-quarter  span, 
and  curvilinear  houses.  These  names  have  been  apjalied 
from  the  various  shapes  that  may  be  given  to  the  houses. 
While  any  of  these  forms  of  houses  may  be  used  for  all 
purposes,  each  one  of  them  is  particularly  adapted  for 
the  growing  of  certain  plants,  and  as  they  each  have 
their  sj)ecial  advantages  and  disadvantages,  they  should 
have  careful  consideration. 

SPAN    ROOF    HOUSES. 

The  form  of  glass  structure  which  has  come  to  be 
known  as  the  span  roof  is,  more  properly,  the  ''even 
span,"  as  the  lean-to  may  be  considered  a  "half  span" 
house,  while  we  also  have  ''two-third"  and  'three- 
quarter  span"  houses.     The  typical  "even  span"  house 


DIFFERENT   FORMS    OF   GREENHOUSES.  7 

is  generall}^  from  nine  to  twelve,  or  from  eighteen  to 
twenty  feet  wide,  with  side  walls  from  four  to  five  feet 
high.  The  twO  slopes  of  the  roof  are  of  the  same  extent, 
and  arc  arranged  at  the  same  angle,  usually  between 
thirty  and  thirty-five  degrees,  which  will  bring  the  ridge, 
in  a  house  twenty  feet  wide,  about  ten  feet  above  the 
walk,  in  a  house  with  walls  four  feet  high,  and  the  roof 
at  an  angle  of  thirty  degrees,  and  eleven  feet  high,  when 
it  has  a  slope  of  thirty-five  degrees. 

In  a  house  of  this  size,  it  is  desirable  to  have,  at 
least,  two  rows  of  ventilating  sash,  which  may  be  on 
either  side  of  the  ridge,  or,  if  three  rows  are  used,  one 


FIG.    5.       EVEN    SPAN    GREENHOUSES. 

may  be  located  at  the  ridge  and  the  others  in  the  side 
walls.  The  amount  of  ventilation  desirable  will,  of 
course,  bo  determined  largely  by  the  plants  to  be  grown 
in  the  house. 

Although  less  simple  in  construction  than  the  lean-to, 
they  have  a  far  greater  variety  of  uses,  and  are  much 
more  frequently  erected.  In  fact,  nearly  all  the  houses 
constructed  for  commercial  purposes,  prior  to  1885, 
were  of  what  is  known  as  the  even  span  style  (Fig.  5). 


8  GREENHOUSE  COlfSTRUCTIOIf. 

For  ordiuary  growing  houses  for  a  commercial  florist, 
this  form  is  as  good  as  can  be  secured,  although  for 
forcing  houses  the  three-quarter  span  is  preferable.  One 
of  the  special  advantages  of  these  houses  is  that  they 
may  be  run  at  almost  any  direction  that  the  location 
may  necessitate.  With  this  form  of  roof,  the  benches 
can  be  placed  at  the  same  height,  and  the  plants  will 
still  be  near  the  glass,  while  in  other  forms  of  roof,  with 
the  same  pitch,  the  ridge  will  be  much  higher. 

The  even  sj^an  houses  are  usually  run  north  and 
south,  as  this  not  only  brings  the  plants,  on  both  sides 
of  the  houses,  into  full  sunshine  during  a  part  of  the 
day,  but  better  than  any  other  direction,  or  any  other 
kind  of  a  house,  provides  for  a  perfect  distribution  of 
the  rays  of  light  and  heat  upon  all  sides  of  the  plants. 
For  many  purposes  the  east  and  west  arrangement,  with 
i  one  side  facing  the  south,  is  preferable,  as,  during  the 
four  liours  of  the  day  when  the  sun's  rays  are  most  jaow- 
erful,  they  strike  at  right  angles  to  the  glass,  and  are 
but  little  obstructed  by  the  sash  bars ;  while,  were  the 
houses  running  north  and  south,  more  than  half  the 
rays  would  be  cut  oif  between  eleven  and  one  o'clock, 
and,  as  this  part  of  the  day  is  particularly  valuable  in 
the  forcing  house,  this  arrangement  is  preferable  for 
them.  The  beneficial  effects,  however,  will  be  confined 
to  about  two-thirds  of  the  house,  on  the  side  towards 
the  sun,  while  the  other  side  will  have  much  less  sun 
than  were  it  in  a  house  running  north  and  south.  If 
designed  as  growing  houses,  this  might  not  be  objection- 
able, as  the  north  side  could  be  used  for  ferns,  violets, 
or  for  plants  at  rest,  which  do  fully  as  well  in  partial 
shade. 

The  fact  that  the  north  third  of  the  house  is  of  little 
value  for  forcing  purposes,  led,  in  part,  to  the  construc- 
tion of  the  first  forms  of  two-third  and  three-quarter 
span  houses^  which,  so  far  as  the  slope  of  the  roof  i§ 


DIFFERENT    FORMS   OF   GREENHOUSES.  9 

concerned,  did  not  differ  from  the  even  span,  tlie  only 
difference  being  that  the  back  wall  was  run  up  at  a  point 
which  cut  off  the  north  third  or  fourth  of  the  house. 
Everything  else  being  equal,  the  loss  of  heat  from  a  span 
roof  house  will  be  somewhat  greater  than  from  either  a 
lean-to,  or  uneven  span  house,  especially  if  it,  like  the 
others,  runs  east  and  west,  on  account  of  its  having  a 
greater  area  of  glass  upon  its  north  side.  In  the  lean-to 
there  is  no  glass  at  all  on  the  north  side,  ^^'hile,  in  the 
three-quarter  span  house,  the  glass  area  on  the  north  side 
will  only  be  one-half  as  great  as  in  the  even  span. 

The  even  span  houses  may  vary  in  width,  from  nine 
to  twenty-four  feet  oi;tside.  For  tlie  narrow  houses 
only  one  walk,  situated  in  the  center,  with  a  bench  on 
each  side  (See  Fig.  59),  is  used.  When  the  walk  is  two 
feet  wide  there  wall  be  room  for  two  tables,  each  three  and 
one-half  feet  in  "width.  These  widths  may  be  increased 
to  four  feet  for  the  beds,  and  two  feet  six  inches  for  the 
walk,  if  necessary,  but  twelve  feet  would  be  the  extreme 
width  that  could  be  used  with  comfort,  wdien  a  house 
with  a  single  walk  is  to  be  used  for  most  greenhouse 
crops,  especially  if  they  are  grown  in  pots.  When  two 
walks  are  used,  the  houses  would  need  to  be  increased 
to  a  width  of,  at  least,  sixteen  feet,  and,  for  some  pur- 
poses, may  be  as  much  as  twenty-four  feet,  which  will 
be  as  Avide  as  will  jjrobably  be  used  under  any  circum- 
stances. A  medium  width,  however,  is  preferable,  and 
the  greatest  economy  of  space  and  comfort,  in  caring 
for  the  houses,  will  be  obtained,  when  the  houses  are 
not  less  than  eighteen  feet,  nor  more  than  twenty,  out- 
side measurement. 

While  houses  are  often  built  with  walks  as  narrow 
as  eighteen  inches,  it  is  better  to  allow  two  feet,  in  com- 
mercial growing  houses,  and  in  private  houses  a  width 
of  two  and  one-half  feet  for  walks,  w'ill  not  be  too  great. 
For  the  side  benches,  three  feet  and  six  inches  will  be 


10 


GREENHOUSE   CONSTRUCTIOX. 


n. 


-33' 


riG.   6.       GROUND  PLAN   AND    END    ELEVATION    OF   RIDGE 
AND    FURROW   HOUSES. 


EIDGE    AND    FUKKOW    HOUSES.  11 

found  a  couveuieut  widtli,  jiltliough  four  feet  is  often 
used.  If  the  greatest  economy  of  space  and  convenience 
of  handling  the  plants  is  sought,  the  center  bench  should 
be  about  seven  feet  in  width.  They  are,  however,  often 
made  as  narrow  as  six  feet,  and  when  large  plants  are  to 
be  grown,  which  will  make  a  high  roof  desirable,  the 
width  of  the  house  may  be  increased  to  take-  in  a 
bench  ten  or  eleven  feet  in  \\idth. 

RIDGE    AND    FUREOVv^  HOUSES. 

The  even  span  form  of  roof  has  one  advantage  that 
is  possessed  by  no  other  (except  by  the  short  span  to  the 
south,  or  the  three-qnarter  sj^an  on  a  sidehill),  as  they 
admit  of  the  ridge  and  furrow  construction,  as  it  is  com- 
monly called.  This  should,  however,  be  distinguished 
from  tlie  ridge  and  furrow  form  used  in  England  by  Sir 
Joseph  Paxton  and  others,  in  which  the  roof  was  broken 
up  into  a  great  number  of  ridges,  and  furrows  run  up 
the  main  sloj^e  of  the  roof. 

The  2)rincipal  gain  is  due  to  the  fact,  as  sliown  in 
Fig.  6,  that  when,  say  five,  houses  are  built  in  this  way, 
only  six  walls  will  be  required,  and  four  of  tliese  can  be 
of  light,  cheap  construction,  instead  of  the  ten  well-built 
walls  that  would  be  necessary  Avere  the  houses  built 
separately.  Another  advantage,  which  should  not  be 
overlooked,  is  due  to  tlie  fact  that  there  will  be  only  one- 
fifth  as  much  exposed  wall  surface,  and  that,  when  built 
thus  close  together,  one  house  on  each  side  will  protect 
the  others  from  the  high,  cold  winds  that  come  from 
that  direction.  There  will  also  be  a  considerable  saving 
in  space,  which  will  be  worth  considerable,  especially  in 
cities. 

Among  the  disadvantages  of  the  ridge  and  furrow 
style  of  houses,  is  the  shading  of  the  center  houses  dur- 
ing the  morning  and  afternoon,  by  those  on  either  side, 
by  which,  especially  in   the  case  of  wide,  high  houses. 


12  GREENHOUSE    COXSTRUCTIO^ST. 

mucli  light  ttud  beat  is  shut  off ;  also  the  fact  that  when 
houses  are  built  in  this  way,  side  light  and  side  ventila- 
tion cannot  be  secured.  While  this  is  not  even  desira- 
ble for  some  crops,  for  others  it  is  quite  necessary,  and 
whether  crops  are  to  be  selected  that  are  ada})ted  to  the 
houses,  or  houses  are  to  be  erected  that  are  to  be  suited  to 
the  growing  of  certain  crops,  this  should  Ije  understood. 
It  may  be  laid  down  as  a  rule  that,  aside  from  the 
economy  of  erection,  heating,  etc.,  better  results  will  be 
obtained  from  wide  houses,  if  they  are  built  with  inter- 
vals of,  at  least,  fifteen  feet  between  them;  but  when 
the  erection  of  the  extra  walls,  and  the  increase  in  fuel 
and  land  are  considered,  for  the  ordinary  florist,  even 
span  houses,  of  a  width  of  twenty  feet  or  less,  should  be 
erected  upon  this  plan,  unless  other  special  reasons  might 
exist.  In  sections  where  the  snowfall  is  heavy,  the  gut- 
ters will  become  filled,  and,  as  the  snow  cannot  slide 
from  the  roof,  with  lonsr  houses,  unless  they  are  narrow, 
and  only  built  with  three  houses  in  a  section,  to  allow  of 
the  snow  being  thrown  over  the  roofs  of  the  side  houses, 
this  will  be  a  serious  objection  to  the  plan.  For  the 
growing  of  small  bedding  plants,  mignonette,  helio- 
trope, carnations,  and  for  propagating  houses,  this 
form  of  consti'uction,  with  houses  twelve  feet  wide,  will 
be  quite  satisfactory.  Of  course,  any  j)lants  can  be 
grown  in  them,  but  a  wider  house  seems  preferable  for 
roses,  carnations,  lettuce,  and  for  most  forcing  crops, 
particularly  as  the  amount  of  air  enclosed  is  greater  in 
proportion  to  the  amount  of  exposed  glass  surface,  on 
which  account  the  temperature  can  be  easier  regulated, 
and  drafts  of  air  jjreveuted. 

THE   LEAN-TO    HOUSE. 

When  it  is  desirable  that  the  first  cost  shall  be  as 
small  as  possible,  and  if  the  expense  for  fuel,  rather  than 
the  crops  grown  iu  the  house,  is  considered,  the  lean-to 


THE   LEAN-TO    HOUSE. 


13 


form,  particularly  if  the  structure  is  to  be  a  small  one, 
will  be  found  of  value.  An  idea  of  the  shape  of  the 
house,  and  the  reason  for  the  name,  can  be  obtained 
from  Fig.  7.  If  the  house  can  be  built  against  the 
south  wall  of  a  building,  or  against  a  steep  sidehill, 
these  will  be  additional  reasons,  as  affecting  the  cost  of 
erection  and  heating,  for  using  this  form  of  construction. 
On  the  other  hand,  this  shape  for  a  greenhouse  has,  per- 


FiG.  7.     LEAN-TO   HODSE  [Gross  Section). 

haps,  more  and  greater  objections  than  any  other.  One 
serious  fault  is  that  for  three  hours  in  the  forenoon,  and 
an  equal  period  in  the  afternoon,  the  plants  get  little  or 
no  direct  sunlight ;  another  objection  is  that  the  light 
that  they  do  get,  coming  all  from  the  south  side,  is  une- 
qually distributed  upon  the  plants,  and  th$  leaves  are  all 
turned  in  that  direction,  thus  giving  the  plants  an  uneven 
appearance. 

As  grape  or  peach  houses,  the  lean-to  construction 
answers  very  well,  and,  wdiere  one  has  a  wall  that  can  be 


14  GREENHOUSE    CONSTRUCTION. 

utilized,  the  expense  for  building  and  heating  will  be 
very  small.  A  lean-to,  with  its  roof  sloi)ing  to  the  north, 
answers  very  well  as  a  propagating  house.  One  of  the 
simplest  ways  of  building  one  is  to  place  it  against  the 
north  wall  of  a  three-quarter  span  house,  or  by  building 
an  even  span  house  twenty-five  feet  wide,  and  cutting 
off  six  and  one-half  feet  on  the  north  side,  thus  forming, 
on  one  side,  what  is  known  as  a  north  side  ])roi3agating 
house  (See  Fig.  CI),  and  on  the  other  a  three-quarter 
span  forcing  house.  As  a  small  house  for  an  amateur, 
quite  satisfactory  results  can  be  obtained  from  a  lean-to, 
but  a  span  roof  house  is  to  be  preferred. 

For  the  forcing  of  vegetables,  the  growers  of  lettuce 
at  Arlington,  Mass.,  and  vicinity,  use  wide  houses  con- 
structed on  the  lean-to  plan  (See  Fig.  83),  and  they  give 
excellent  satisfaction.  As  a  rule,  lean-to  houses  are 
built  with  a  wall  from  four  to  six  feet  high,  and  with  a 
roof  of  a  width  in  proportion  to  the  width  of  the  house ; 
but  they  are  sometimes  built  quite  narrow,  with  a  low 
wall,  just  high  enough  to  allow  of  bottom  ventilation, 
from  which  the  side  sash  rises  at  an  angle  of  from  forty- 
five  to  sixty  degrees,  to  a  height  of  eiglit  or  nine  feet, 
with  a  narrow  ventilator  connecting  the  top  with  the 
back  wall.  A  good  idea  of  the  form  of  this  house  can 
be  obtained  from  Fig.  97.  The  principal  use  of  a  nar- 
row lean-to  of  this  kind,  would  be  as  a  cold  grape  or 
peach  house. 

In  a  general  way,  the  construction  of  a  lean-to  house 
would  be  the  same  as  of  half  of  a  span  roof  house,  and, 
so  far  as  the  building  of  these  houses  is  concerned,  they 
will  be  treated  under  the  same  headings,  and  wall  receive 
no  further  consideration  as  distinct  houses. 

SIDEHILL   HOUSES. 

A  modified  form  of  lean-to,  which  combines  its 
advantages  with  those  of  the  three-quarter  span  house. 


SIDEHILL    HOUSES. 


15 


is  sometimes  known  as  the  sidehill  house.  W.  C. 
Strong,  of  Massachusetts,  erected  a  house  of  this  kind  at 
Brighton,  and  was  well  pleased  with  it.  Other  smaller 
houses  have  since  heen  erected,  and,  for  vegetable  forc- 
ing, have  given  excellent  satisfaction.  A  good  idea  of 
the  construction  of  the  houses  can  be  obtained  from 
Fig.  8.  They  should  be  located  upon  a  hillside  which 
has  a  slope  towards  the  south  of  about  twenty-five  de- 
grees. Each  section  should  consist  of  a  lean-to  structure 
of  any  desired  width,  from  ten  to  twenty-five  feet.  The 
south  wall  is  built  the  same  as  for  any  greenhouse,  and, 
for  a  structure  fifteen  feet  wide,  posts  should  be  placed 


FIG.  S.      SIDEHILL  HOUSES  [Section). 

in  the  ground,  as  at  a,  for  the  north  wall ;  a  gutter 
should  be  placed  upon  them,  and  this  will  answer  for 
the  south  gutter  of  the  adjoining  house.  The  sash  bars 
should  be  laid  at  the  same  angle  as  the  slope  of  the  hill, 
against  a  ridge,  g,  which  should  be  about  two  by  four 
inches,  as  should  the  sides  of  the  gutters,  e. 

The  ridge  is  supported  by  braces  about  two  by  four 
inches,  which  are  placed  at  intervals  of  two  and  one-half 


16  GREENHOUSE    CONSTRLTCTTON'. 

feet,  as  is  shown  at  //.  The  ventilators,  tlie  construction 
of  which  is  shown  at  d,  are  of  wood,  and  Avill  be  found 
convenient  to  Avalk  upon  in  removing  the  snow  and 
making  repairs,  otherwise  they  could  be  of  glass,  if  pre- 
ferred. The  benches  may  be  arranged  as  is  most  con- 
venient, the  method  shown  in  Fig.  8  bqing  an  excellent 
one.  The  heating  pipes  may  be  arranged  along  the  sides 
of  the  walks,  but  should  be  so  distributed  that  the  lower 
houses  will  have  their  share  of  the  heat. 

In  Europe,  houses  of  this  form  are  very  commonly 
used,  and  vegetables  of  all  kinds  are  grown  out  of  season, 
in  much  the  same  way  as  in  the  open  air.  Hundreds 
and  thousands  of  acres  are  thus  covered  with  glass,  and 
the  profits  of  a  quarter  of  an  acre  are  sometimes  more 
than  from  the  best  hundred  acres  used  in  general  farming. 


CHAPTER  III. 

THREE-QUARTER    SPAN"    HOUSES. 

As  previously  stated,  the  first  form  of  three-quarter 
span  house  was  the  same  as  three-quarters  of  an  even 
span  structure,  but  the  shape  of  the  roof  has  been 
somewhat  modified,  so  that  the  plants  will  be  nearer  the 
glass.  The  cost  of  building  these  houses  is  about  the 
same  as  for  an  even  span,  but  owing  to  the  fact  that  the 
north  wall  is  from  six  to  eight  feet  high,  there  will  be 
less  loss  of  heat  from  the  north  side  of  the  roof,  and  the 
south  pitch  of  the  roof  will  take  in  more  of  the  light 
and  heat  rays,  than  would  be  the  case  with  a  span  roof 
house. 

The  three-quarter  span  houses  may  be  likened  to  a 
lean-to  house  with  the  peak  of  the  roof  cut  off.  In  the 
lean-to  the  heat  tends  to  rise  into  the  angle  of  the  roof. 


THREE-QUARTER    RPAI^   HOUSES. 


17 


and  lience  is  not  evenly  distributed,  but  in  the  three- 
quarter  and  even  span  houses  there  is  less  trouble  from 
tills.  The  three-quarter  span  houses  always  run  east 
and  west,  and  the  north  slope  of  the  roof  allows  the  light 
to  fall  on  the  plants  from  all  sides,  so  that  the  growth  or 
the  plants  will  be  stronger  and  more  symmetrical.  It  is 
the  south  slope  that  is  principally  relied  upon  to  trap 
the  light  and  heat  of  the  sun,  and  the  angle  at  which 
the  glass  is  arranged  is  that  which  will  be  nearest  at 
right  angles  to  the  sun's  rays  during  the  winter  months. 
This  form  of  house  is  particularly  adapted  to  the 
forcing  of  roses,  and  of  all  other  plants  that  need  a  max- 
imum amount  of  light  for  their  development.     In  Fig.  9 


^ 

^ 

^ 

k 

i(^ 

■^ 

1 

L_ 

=1 

^        1 

_  . 

L 

' 

, 

FIG.   9.      THREE-QUARTER    SPAN    HOUSE  [Section). 


will  be  seen  the  usual  form  of  forcing  house  of  the  three- 
quarter  span  style.  For  adapting  it  to  different  crops, 
the  height  of  the  walls,  the  slope  and  length  of  the  sash 
bars,  and  the  width  and  height  of  the  benches,  can  be 
varied  at  jDleasure.  As  a  general  rule,  the  three-quarter 
span  houses  are  from  sixteen  to  twenty  feet  wide ;  the 
south  wall  is  from  four  to  five  feet  high,  and  the  north 
one  from  six  to  eight  feet.  The  south  pitch  of  the  roof 
2 


18  QREEN^HOrSE    COKSTRUCTION". 

varies  from  twenty-six  to   thirty-five  degrees,  and  the 
north  one  from  thirty-five  to  sixty-five  degrees. 

The  side  benches  are  each  about  three  feet  wide, 
and  are  phiced  about  one  and  one-half  feet  below  the 
plates.  The  center  bench  may  be  single  (Fig.  63),  with 
a  slope  to  the  south,  or  double,  as  shown  in  Fig.  9,  with 
a  narrow  walk  between  the  two  parts.  This  style  of 
house  is  also  largely  used  for  lettuce  forcing,  and  for 
this  purjiose  the  Avidth  is  sometimes  increased  to  thirty- 
five  feet. 

CURVILIifEAR    ROOFS. 

In  this  construction  the  sash  bars  are  more  or  less 
curved,  with  the  idea  that,  at  all  times  of  the  day,  some 
of  the  glass  will  be  at  right  angles  to  the  sun's  rays. 
This,  of  course,  is  secured,  but  the  result  of  the  curved 
sash  bars  is  to  decrease  the  angle  at  which  the  rays  strike 
a  majority  of  the  panes,  so  that,  after  all,  the  ciirvilinear 
construction  is  an  injury,  rather  than  a  benefit.  The 
old  style  of  curved  roof  had  the  sash  bars  leaving  the 
plate  in  nearly  a  vertical  direction,  and  with  most  of  the 
curve  in  the  lower  third  of  the  roof.  As  a  result,  the 
upper  half  of  the  roof  approached  the  horizontal,  and 
made  a  very  small  angle  with  the  sun's  rays,  especially 
during  the  winter.  The  present  form  of  curvilinear 
roof  has  a  more  regular  curve,  and,  as  shown  in  Fig.  10, 
is  less  objectionable.  Whatever  the  material  used,  the 
cost  of  the  framework  for  a  curvilinear  house  is  consid- 
erably more  than  for  a  straight  roofed  house.  If,  for 
glazing  the  roof,  glass  bent  to  the  proper  angle  is  used, 
the  cost  will  be  much  more  than  for  straight  glass. 
Ordinary  sheet  glass  can,  of  course,  be  used  upon  curvi- 
linear roofs,  but,  especially  upon  the  old  form  of  roof, 
comparatively  short  panes  must  be  used. 

To  many  persons  the  curve  is  a  ''line  of  beauty," 
and  a  curvilinear  house  has  a  more  ornate  and  finished 


CURVILINEAR   ROOKS. 


19 


20  GREENHOUSE    CONSTRUCTION. 

appearance  than  one  with  straight  sash  bars  and,  in  pri- 
vate and  public  parks,  where  the  increased  cost  is  not 
considered  an  objection,  and  where  the  houses  would  be 
an  ornamental  feature  of  the  landscape,  curvilinear 
houses  have  their  place.  This  form  of  roof  is  also  quite 
desirable  for  large  conservatories,  although  a  roof  made 
with  straight  sash  bars  can  be  so  broken  up  as  to  relieve 
it  of  any  barn-like  appearance.  The  curvilinear  con- 
struction can  be  used  in  lean-to,  even  span,  or  three- 
quarter  span  houses,  but  for  the  reasons  given  is  not 
particularly  desirable  in  any  form  of  low,  narrow  houses, 
and,  in  fact,  it  is  generally  admitted  that  better  plants 
can  be  grown  in  houses  with  straight  sash  bars. 

Some  twenty  years  ago  the  curved  construction  was 
in  very  common  use  in  England,  but  the  general  verdict 
seems  to  be  expressed  by  a  writer,*  who  says,  "Taken 
as  a  whole,  circular  work  may,  in  a  few  exceptional 
instances,  be  introduced  to  obtain  an  architectural  result, 
or  in  molding  the  lines  of  a  large  winter  garden  or  mag- 
nificent palm  house,  but  for  ordinary  growing  purposes, 
we  may  consider  curvilinear  roofs  not  so  suitable  as  those 
composed  of  straight  lines."  As  a  result  of  this  belief, 
the  curved  roofs  are  no  longer  in  favor,  and  few  such 
are  being  erected  to-day. 

♦Fawkes,  Horticultural  BuUrtings,  P.  54. 


CHAPTER   IV. 

LOCATIO]Sr    AXD   ARRANGEMENT. 

When  erected  in  connection  with  some  other  build- 
ing, the  aspect  and  slope  cannot  always  be  regulated  ; 
but,  if  possible,  greenhouses  for  most  purposes  should 
be  on  the  south  side,  so  that  no  rays  from  either  east  or 
Avest  will  be  cut  oif.  For  a  lean-to  or  a  three-quarter 
span  house  the  wall  or  building  against  which  they  are 
erected  should  run  east  and  west,  and  an  even  span  house 
should,  in  this  case,  run  north  and  south,  with  its  north 
end  against  the  other  structure. 

For  the  location  of  detached  houses,  if  thorougli 
drainage  can  be  secured,  a  level  spot  is  not  objectionable  ; 
while,  if  it  is  at  the  top  of  a  south  and  westerly  slope, 
ail  the  better,  as  there  the  sun  can  get  in  extra  hours  at 
both  ends  of  the  day.  In  case  the  land  on  the  most 
available  site  is  riot  level,  it  should  be  graded,  in  case  it 
can  be  done  without  too  great  expense.  A  slope  of  per- 
haps one  or  two  inches  in  fifty  feet,  to  carry  off  the 
Avater  from  the  gutters,  is  not  objectionable,  and,  while 
it  is  preferable  that  each  house  should  be  j)ractically 
level,  if  the  land  selected  cannot  be  readily  graded  so  as 
to  bring  all  of  the  houses  upon  the  same  level,  there  will 
be  no  serious  objection  to  having  the  houses  ranged,  one 
above  the  other,  in  regular  tiers.  For  sidehill  houses  a 
decided  slope  is  necessary.  In  locating  the  houses, 
means  of  thorough  drainage,  particularly  for  the  boiler 
room,  should  be  the  first  desideratum.  In  arranging  a 
group  of  houses,  the  width  and  height  of  the  different 
structures,  and  the  shajie  of  the  roofs,  will  have  much 

21 


22  GKEENHOUSE    CONSTUUCTIOX. 

to  do  in  determining  their  exact  location.  Unless 
arranged  in  ridge  and  furi-ow  style,  a  space  of  twelve  or 
fifteen  feet  between  the  houses  is  desirable.  The  lean-to 
and  three-quarter  span  houses  may  be  placed  in  parallel 
lines  running  east  and  west,  and  the  even  span  houses 
may  run  in  either  direction.  Besides  having  them  so 
located  as  not  to  shade  one  another,  to  prevent  side  ven- 
tilation, or,  if  desirable,  driving  between  them  with  a 
horse  and  cart,  they  should  be  as  near  together  as  is  pos- 
sible, in  order  to  save  land,  and  for  convenience  and 
economy  in  heating  and  operating  the  houses. 

The  convenience  of  arrangement  assists,  to  a  won- 
derful extent,  in  the  performance  of  the  greenhouse 
work.  The  potting  and  workrooms  should  be  centrally 
located,  well  lighted,  and  in  every  way  convenient  for 
the  work,  and  in  commercial  establishments  the  packing- 
room  should  be  so  situated  as  to  facilitate  getting  np  the 
orders.  In  retail  establishments,  when  the  salesroom  is 
in  connection  with  the  greenhouse,  it  should  be  conven- 
iently located  for  the  customers,  and  should  be  fitted  np 
with  counter,  glass  show  cases,  refrigerator  and  other 
necessary  furniture,  Fig.  76.  If  j)roperly  arranged,  with 
the  wire  designs  npon  wall  hooks,  the  baskets  and  simi- 
lar supplies  in  glass  cases,  in  fact,  ^\  ith  a  place  for  every- 
thing, and  everything  in  its  place,  the  salesroom  will  be 
attractive  to  customers  and  visitors,  while  its  conven- 
ience, and  the  arrangements  for  preserving  the  flowers 
and  supplies,  will  soon  repay  all  expense.  We  believe 
the  above  equipment  to  be  almost  a  necessity  in  a  prop- 
erly conducted  business,  and  if  there  is  a  large  retail 
trade  at  the  greenhouse,  some  attempt  at  decoration, 
both  in  the  salesroom,  and  in  one  house  to  be  used  in 
whole  or  in  part  as  a  showroom,  cannot  fail  to  attract 
visitors,  and  this  will  increase  the  trade. 

In  locating  the  various  workrooms  for  a  large  estab- 
lishment, it  is  well  to  have  them  in  the  center,  with  the 


LOCATION    AXD    ARKANGEMEXT.  33 

lioiiscs  running  ont  from  both  sides,  east  and  west.  A 
siniihir  arrangemeut  for  the  heating  plant  is  also  desira- 
ble ;  thus,  rather  than  have  the  boiler  room  at  one  end 
of  a  long  range  of  houses,  the  boiler  house  could  be 
placed  in  the  center,  and  houses  of  half  the  length 
arranged  on  each  side,  and  better  results  obtained.  A 
A'ery  conyeuient  arrangement  for  the  heating  plant  is 
shown  in  an  engraving  of  F.  R.  Pierson's  range  of  rose 
houses,  in  Chapter  Twenty-two,  in  which  four  houses, 
each  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  long,  are  supplied  from 
a  boiler  house  so  located  that  the  extreme  ends  of  the 
houses  are  but  little  more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty 
feet  away,  instead  of  being  over  three  hundred  feet,  as 
would  be  the  case  were  the  boilers  located  at  the  end  of 
the  range.  Of  course,  with  houses  of  one  hundred  to 
one  hundred  and  fifty  feet,  such  an  arrangement  Avould 
not  be  desirable.  In  many  establishments  it  would  be 
convenient  to  widen  the  connecting  passage-way,  and 
use  it  for  potting,  j)acking  and  like  purposes.  For  a  rose 
forcing  house,  the  potting  and  packing  rooms  need  not 
be  as  large  nor  as  centrally  located  as  for  an  ordinary 
commercial  establishment.  In  large  private  establish- 
ments, the  palm  house  is  generally  the  central  figure, 
around  which  the  others  are  grouped.  For  a  small 
range  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  3  00  is  well  planned,  while 
that  in  Fig.  106  has  as  many  merits  as  a  large  one. 


C IT  AFTER  V. 

GREENHOUSE    WALLS. 

In  erecting  greenhouses,  too  little  attention  is  usu- 
ally paid  to  the  construction  of  the  walls.  Not  only 
should  their  durability  be  secured,  but  the  heaving  by 
the  frost,  and  the  lateral  })ressure  of  the  roof,  should  be 
guarded  against.  Owing  to  a  lack  of  foresight  regarding 
some  of  these  points,  one  seldom  sees  a  greenhouse  with 
five  years'  service  that  is  in  a  satisfactory  condition. 
Greenhouse  walls  are  constructed  of  wood,  brick,  stone 
or  grout,  or  of  a  combination  of  two  of  these  materials. 
Each  of  these  methods  of  construction  has  its  advocates, 
but  each  of  them  has  some  disadvantages. 

MASONRY   WALLS. 

The  use  of  stone  or  grout  (cement,  sand  and  cobble- 
stones), for  the  construction  of  the  foundation  of  brick 
walls,  IS  very  common,  and,  as  they  make  a  durable  wall, 
would,  no  doubt,  be  largely  used  for  the  wails  up  to 
the  plates,  were  it  not  that  they  are  rapid  conductors  of 
heat.  In  small  greenhouses,  where  the  grade  can  be 
carried  up  to  the  plate,  so  that  none  of  the  wall  is  ex- 
posed to  the  outside  air,  they  make  excellent  walls. 

The  excavation  should  be  to  a  depth  of  three  feet 
below  the  proposed  outside  grade  level,  and  of  a  width 
to  admit  of  a  fifteen  or  eighteen  inch  footing  course. 
This  should  occupy  the  trench  up  to  the  level  of  the 
interior  of  the  house,  at  any  rate,  and  even  if  brick  or 
other  material  is  used  for  the  upper  part  of  the  wall, 
may  extend  to  the  level  of  the  ground  outside,  Avhich  is 


WWfFffTT  LIBIURY  pB?)^l!, 


N  r  Q*^*„  />  M  *.  e:. 


co^ 


MASONRY   WALLS. 


35 


often  from  two  to  five  feet  above  that  of  the  interior. 
Stone  conducts  heat  quite  rapidly,  and  for  tliat  reason 
Avill  not  he  desirable  as  a  wall  above  ground,  nnless  made 
very  thick.  This  objection  does  not  hold  to  the  same 
extent  with  grout,  and  where  small  stones  can  be  readily 
obtained,  it  makes  a  cheap  and  very  durable  wall.  For 
a  honse  not  over  twenty-five  feet  wide,  and  when  less 
than  five  feet  in  height,  a  wall  of 
grout  twelve  inches  thick  will  answer. 
This  should  rest  on  an  eighteen  inch 
footing  course  of  the  same  material. 
The  materials  required  are,  stones 
from  two  to  four  inches  in  diameter, 
gravel,  and  water  lime,  of  Louisville 
or  a  similar  brand. 

In  making  the  Avail,  a  box  of  the 
desired  width  is  made  by  driving 
stakes  along  the  line  of  the  wall,  on 
each  side,  and  setting  up  twelve  inch 
planks  for  the  sides  of  the  box.  In 
this  a  layer  of  stones  is  placed,  which 
should  be  packed  in  carefully,  and 
kept,  at  least,  one-half  inch  away 
from  the  planks.  The  cement  is  then 
prepared  by  thoroughly  mixing  one 
part  with  three  parts  of  gravel,  and 
then  adding  water  enough  to  thor- 
oughly moisten  it.  The  best  results 
are  obtained,  if  it  is  of  about  the  same 
consistency  as  ordinary  lime  mortar.  The  water  should 
not  be  added  until  the  cement  has  been  mixed  with  the 
gravel.  A  layer  of  cement  from  two  to  three  inches 
tliick,  over  the  stones,  will  be  sufficient ;  this  should  be 
well  tamped  down,  filling  all  of  the  space  between  the 
stones.  Another  layer  of  stones  and  cement  can  then  be 
added,  and  the  process  repeated  until  the  box  is  filled. 


FIG.    11. 
GEOUT   WALL. 


26 


GREENHOUSE    COliTSTRUCTlON. 


requiring  about  three  layers.  One  Mall  of  the  house  can 
be  built  at  a  time,  although  if  planks  are  at  hand  it  will 
be  well  to  allow  one  wall  to  set  while  a  course  is  being 
put  in  on  anotlier.  After  the  grout  has  been  setting  for 
five  or  six  hours,  tlie  j-jlanks  can  be  raised  their  own 
width,  and  the  box  will  thus  be  prepared  for  another 
course.  In  this  way  a  wall  of  any  desired  height  can  be 
built,  wliich  will  be  found  quite 
durable  and  in  every  way  satisfac- 
tory. Tlie  aj)})earance  of  the  wall 
can  be  improved  if,  after  the  last 
course  has  been  put  on,  the  ex- 
])osed  surface  is  given  a  thin  coat 
of  Portland  cement  moi-tar.  If 
desired,  the  surface  can  be  laid  off 
into  squares,  resembling  blocks  of 
sandstone.  The  appearance  of  a 
wall  built  entirely  of  grout  is 
.sliown  in  Fig.  11,  while  Fig.  12 
shows  a  Avail  half  grout  and  half 
wood. 


~~'^>~—-^ 


sl^^S 


BRICK    WALLS. 


Unless  the  very  best  materials 
are  used  in  their  construction,  the 
greenhouse  walls  constnicted  of 
brick  will  be  comparatively  short- 
no.  12.  GROUT  AKU  lived,  as  the  combined  action  of 
AVOODEi^  AVALL.  moisturc  and  frost  will  disinte- 
grate the  mortar,  and  cause  the  outer  tier  of  bricks  to 
crumble.  Hard  burned  bricks  should  be  selected,  aiid 
the  best  Louisville,  or,  better  yet,  Portland  cement  mor- 
tar, should  be  used.  Wliatever  the  thickness  of  tlie 
wall,  there  should  be,  at  least,  one  air  space,  to  prevent 
radiation  of  heat.  This  will  also  tend  to  render  the  wall 
more  durable,  by  preventing  the  capillary  passage  of  the 


WOODEN     WALLS. 


27 


moisture.  Fur  nil  low  wtills,  two  tiers  of  brick,  with  a 
one-iiich  air  space,  making  a  nine-inch  wall,  will  answer  ; 
tliese  should  be  firmly  tied  together  every  fourth  course 
vertically,  and  every  three  or  four  bricks  along  the  walls. 
Fig.  13.  A  post  once  iu  eight  feet  will  strengtlien  the 
wall,  and  prevent  the  plates  from  spreading.  For  heavy 
or  wide  structures,  or  if  the  wall  is  high,  a  third  tier  of 
bricks  on  the  inside,  one-half,  or, 
perhaj)s,  two-thirds  the  height  of  the 
wall,  will  serve  to  strengthen  it. 
Fig.  14  shows  the  construction  of 
such  a  wall,  as  used  Avith  an  iron  sill. 


WOODEN    WALLS. 

Probably  nine-tenths  of  the 
present  greenhouses  are  constructed 
with  what  might  be  called  post  and 
board  walls.  In  their  erection,  tlie 
pofts  used  should  be  of  some  durable 
material,  such  as  red  cedar,  locust 
or  cypress,  and  the  size  should  vary 
from  four  by  four  inches  for  low 
walls  and  narrow  houses,  to  six  by 
six  inches  for  high  walls  and  wide 
houses.  The  posts  should  be  seven 
to  eight  feet  in  length,  except  on  the 
back  side  of  three  -  quarter  span 
houses,  where  a  length  of  ten  or 
twelve  feet  will  be  necessary,  which 
will  allow  of   tlieir  beins:  set  three 


FIG.    13. 

BRICK    WALL   WITH 

WOODEN    SILL. 


feet  iu  the  ground  for  the  front  wall,  and  four  feet  for 
the  rear  one.  The  posts  should  be  placed  in  a  straight 
line,  about  four  feet  apart,  and  unless  tlie  ground  is 
cpiite  firm  and  solid,  it  is  well  to  place  a  flat  stone  under 
the  post,  and  fill  up  the  hole  around  t  witli  grout.  This 
will  not  only  hold  the  post   firmly  in  place,  but  it  will 


28 


GREENHOUSE    CONSTRUCTIOIf. 


have  a  tendency  to  preserve  it.  The  durability  of  the 
posts  can  also  be  increased  by  charring  the  lower  end, 
and  then  soaking  it  in  crude  petroleum.  A  coat  of  coal 
tar  Avould  be  better  than  the  petroleum,  but  it  should 
never  be  used  about  a  greenhouse,  as  it  will  be  injurious 
to  the  plants. 

The  posts  should  then  be  sheathed  upon  the  outside, 
for  which  purpose  a  fair  grade  of  matched  lumber  is 


FIG.    14.       BRICK    WALL   WITH    IRON    SILL. 

desirable,  altliough  any  kind  of  culled  lumber  will  answer 
(Fig.  15).  It  will  always  pay  to  cover  the  sheathing 
with  some  kind  of  heavy  building  paper,  avoiding  all 
brands  that  contain  tar.  For  the  outer  covering  the 
novelty  or  patent  siding  will  be  found  preferable  to  ordi- 
nary clapboards.     For  rose  and  stove  houses  it  may  pay. 


PLATES   AND    GUTTERS. 


29 


in  exposed  localities,  to  ceil  up  the  posts  on  the  inside ; 
but  if  this  is  done  it  will  be  best  not  to  pack  the  enclosed 
space  with  sawdust  or  similar  material.  This  course 
was  recommended  for  many  years,  but,  in  practice,  it 
was  found  that  the  packing  absorbed 
moisture  and  caused  a  rapid  decay  of  the 
wall.  In  ceiling  up  the  inside  of  the 
posts,  tight  joints  should  be  made,  that 
will  exclude  mice ;  otherAvise,  the  en- 
closed space  may  become  a  harboring 
place  for  them,  and  thus  prove  a  greater 
injury  than  benefit.  When  used  for 
growing  roses  and  other  tall  plants,  that 
require  the  bed  to  he  sitiiated  at  least  tw^o 
feet  below  the  plate,  it  is  well  to  have  a 
row  of  sash  m  each  of  the  side  walls  (Fig. 
16).  If  houses  run  east  and  west,  a  row 
along  the  south  side  will  answer,  although 
one  on  the  north  side  will  be  of  advant- 
age ;  in  north  and  south  houses  the  sash 
should  be  placed  in  both  sides.  In  nar- 
row houses  they  may  be  fastened  perma- 
nently, but,  if  the  houses  are  wide,  it  will  riG.  15. 
be  advisable  to  have,  at  least,  a  part  of  wooden  wall. 
them  on  hinges,  so  that  they  can  be  opened  if  found 
necessary  (Fig.  50). 


PLATES   AND    GUTTERS. 

The  w^all  plates  may  be  placed  level,  on  the  top  of 
the  walls,  as  in  Fig.  12,  or  they  may  be  at  the  same 
angle  as  the  roof.  As  a  rule,  two-inch  lumber  is  heavy 
enough,  although  if  a  gutter  is  desired  for  catching  the 
roof-water,  strips  may  be  nailed  to  it,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
12.  Another  method  of  arranging  the  gutter  is  shown 
in  Fig.  IG.  Whichever  method  is  chosen,  the  posts, 
where  wooden  walls  are  used,  should  all  be  cut  off  at 


30 


GEEENHOUSE    CONSTRUCTION. 


tlie  same  angle,  aud  the  plate  seciirel}^  fastened  in  place. 
The  arrangement  shown  in  Fig  IG  is  the  neatest  and 
best,  and  the  same  form  of  plate,  without  tiie  gutter, 
can  be  used  Avhon  one  does  not  desn'c  the  lattei".  The 
form  illustrated  in  Fig.  12  will  be  a  cheap  and  satisfac- 
tory method  of  arranging  tlie  gutter,  while  that  shown 
in  Fig.  15  is,  perhaps,  the  cheapest  and  easiest  way  of 
making  a  jjlate  when  a  gutter  is  not 
desired.  When  the  under  side  of 
the  plate  is  level  there  should  be  a 
smuJl  groove  near  each  edge,  to  pre- 
vent the  water  from  working  back 
into,  or  down  the  wall. 

In  some  cases  a  wooden  wall 
built  in  exactly  the  same  way  as  the 
wall  of  a  dwelling  house,  is  preferred 
to  the  ''post  and  board"  wall.  For 
this  a  foundation  of  stone,  brick  or 
grout,  extending  to  the  outside 
grade  line,  is  necessary,  and  an  ex- 
cellent plan  is  to  have  two,  or  even 
three  feet  of  the  Avail  below  this 
level,  with  a  corresponding  excava- 
tion for  the  house,  necessitating  the 
erection  of  a  wooden  wall  of  the 
same  height  al)ove.  In  this  way  the 
FIG.  16.  WOODEN  exposed  surface  is  greatly  reduced, 
WALL  WITH  GLASS  and  a  durable  and  warm  wall  will  be 
SIDE.  Bccurcd..     The    sill    for    tliis    wall 

should  be  two  by  four-inch  scantling,  with  studding  of 
the  same  size,  placed  two  feet  apart.  The  sides  and  top 
can  be  arranged  in  the  same  manner  as  when  posts  are 
used  (Fig.  12).  If  there  is  danger  of  lateral  pressure, 
the  sills  should  Ijc  securely  anchored  to  the  foundation. 
This  form  of  wall  is  principally  desii'able  for  narrow 
houses,  and  where  side  ventilation  is  not  needed. 


IRON"    POSTS    AND     SILLS. 


31 


IRON    rOSTS   AND    SILLS. 

Although  wood  is  now  ahnost  universally  used  in 
the  construction  of  commercial  houses,  many  of  the 
more  enterprising  florists  are  employing  iron  and  steel 
in  such  portions  of  the  house  as  do  not  form  a  jiart  of 
the  exterior,  particularly  for 
posts,  sills,  purlins  and  ridge. 

Oqg  of  the  simplest  and 
best  arrangements  of  this 
kind  was  used  by  Lord  &  \s 
Burnham  Co.,  in  the  con- 
struction of  a  range  of  rose 
houses  for  F,  R,  Pierson,  at 
Scarborough,  N.  Y.  (For 
views  and  sections  of  these 
houses  see  Figs.  78  and  79.) 
The  posts  and  rafters  on  each 
side  were  made  from  one 
piece  of  four  by  one-half  inch 
bar  iron,  bent  at  the  gutter- 
line,  so  that  when  the  lower 
end  was  vertical,  to  form  the 
post,  the  other  would  be  at 
the  proper  angle  for  the  I'af- 
ter.  The  post  end  was  placed 
in  an  excavation  three  feet 
deep,  resting  on  a  flat  stone,  n^.  17.  iron  post  and 
and  the  hole  was  filled  up  sill,  with  side  venti- 
with  grout.     The  upper  end  lation. 

of  the  rafter  was  securely  bolted  to  its  companion  from 
the  other  side,  by  means  of  an  iron  bracket.  In  some 
cases  an  iron  ridge  of  the  same  size  of  the  rafters  is  used, 
to  which  the  rafters  are  fastened  by  means  of  angle 
brackets. 

The  wall  may  be  constructed  in  various  ways,  one  of 
which,  illustrated  in  Fig.  9,  will  answer  well  for  rose 


1 

32  GREENHOUSE    CONSTRUCTION. 

houses.     If  desired,  the  entire  wall  beneath   the  plate 
may  be  of  wood,  although  the  glass  will  generally  be 
found  desirable.     It  will  be  noticed  that  the  wooden  por 
tions  of  the  wall  are  bolted  to  the  posts  by  means  of 
small  iron  lugs  (Fig.  17\ 

The  form  of  post  used  by  Ilitchings  &  Co.  is  rather 
more  elaborate  and  ornamental  than  the  above.  It  con- 
sists of  a  cast  iron  post  base  below  ground,  to  which  the 
T  iron  wall  post  is  bolted.  The  rafter  is  then  bolted  to 
the  top  of  the  wall  post  by  means  of  an  ornamental  iron 
l)racket.  In  the  more  elaborate  conservatories,  with  a 
lirick  or  masonry  wall,  an  iron  sill,  Fig.  17,  is  used  (a 
similar  sill  of  iron  can  also  be  used  upon  the  top  of  a 
wooden  post  if  desired),  to  which  the  lower  end  of  the 
rafters  is  fastened  by  iron  lugs. 

This  IS  the  best  form  of  constrnction  now  in  use, 
and  when  ready  capital  is  at  hand  for  the  erection  of 
good  houses,  it  will  be  found  most  economical  in  the 
end.  As  a  second  choice,  one  of  the  forms  of  iron  posts, 
with  a  wall  of  wood,  could  be  used.  Even  if  the  Avooden 
wall  does  decay,  the  posts,  rafters  and  purlins  will  still 
remain,  forming  a  stiff  and  firm  framework,  which  would 
still  support  the  superstructure.  As  a  rule,  the  board 
at  the  bottom  will  decay  first,  and  if  this  is  so  put  in 
that  it  can  be  easily  taken  out  and  renewed,  the  wall  can 
be  kept  in  repair  for  a  long  series  of  years  at  a  small 
expense. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

CONSTRUCTIOIS    OF   THE    ROOF. 

The  portion  of  the  house  to  which  the  most  atten- 
tion is  paid,  are  the  strips  supporting  the  glass.  There 
are  dozens  of  patent  sash  bars,  and  methods  of  glazing, 
and  yet  the  old  wooden  sash  bar  is  still  preferred  by  the 
commercial  florist,  while  the  sash  bars  m  some  of  the 
best  modern  houses  are  identical  in  size  and  shape  with 
those  in  use  thirty  years  agOi  Although  the  glazing 
should  be  so  tight  that  no  water  can  pass  through  into 
the  house,  there  will  be  more  or  less  condensed  moisture 
on  the  under  side  of  the  glass,  and  to  prevent  drip  as 
much  as  possible,  it  is  well  to  have  them  with  drip  gut- 
ters on  each  side.  Some  florists,  however,  prefer  not  to 
have  them. 

Ordinary  white  pine  makes  a  good  sasn  bar,  and,  if 
kept  well  painted,  will  be  found  quite  durable.  The 
southern  cypress,  however,  is  generally  preferred.  It  is 
straight  grained,  rather  more  durable  than  white  pine 
under  the  best  of  care,  and  much  more  so  if  they  are 
neglected.  Cypress  is  also  stronger  and  stiffer  than 
white  pine,  and  the  sash  bars  can  be  made  rather  smaller 
on  that  account.  For  use  with  lapped  glass,  the  best 
form  of  sash  bar,  if  drip  gutters  are  wanted,  is  shown  at 
Fig.  18,  while,  if  the  drip  gutters  are  not  desired,  a  good 
form  is  shown  in  Fig.  19.  When  glass  from  fourteen  to 
eighteen  inches  wide  is  used,  the  roof  sash  bars  should 
be  from  one  and  one-eighth  by  two  inches  to  one  and 
one-fourth  by  two  and  one-half  inches,  according  to  the 
distance  between  the  purlins.  The  rabbets  for  the  glass 
3  33 


34 


GEEENHOUSE    COXSTKUCTION. 


should  bo  abont  half  an  inch  deep  and  five-sixteenths  of 
an  inch  wide.  The  verfcical  sash  bars  for  the  sides  and 
ends  should  be  about  one  and  one-eiffhth  by  one  and 


FIG.    18.        SASH    BAE  WITH 

DRIP   GUTTERS  {Section). 


FIG.    10.       PLAIN  SASH 

BAR  [Section). 


seven-eighths  inches,  the  rabbet  being  of  the  same  size 
as  for  the  roof  sash  bars.  For  butted  glass,  whether  used 
with  or  without  glazing  strips,  either  of  the  above  forms 


FIG 


20.        FIG.  21.        FIG.  22. 
SASH  BARS  FOR  BUTTED  GLASS. 


(Figs.  18  and  19)  may  be  used.  The  patterns  shown  in 
Figs.  20,  21  and  23  are,  however,  jireferable  for  this  kind 
of  glazing.  The  sash  bars  (1)  there  shown  are  practically 
alike,  and  the  difference  lies  principally  in  the  form  of 


PORTABLE    ]{00P. 


35 


the  caps  (2),  those  shown  in  Figs.  20  and  21  being,  pcr- 
liiips,  preferable.  In  Fig.  23  is  shown  a  form  of  sasli 
bar  without  drip  gutters,  for' use  with  butted  ghiss. 

As  a  rule,  the  lumber  working  factories  do  not  have 
nuichinery  for  working  (sticking)  the  drip  grooves,  and 
it  will  be  necessary  to  obtain  them  from  some  firm  deal- 
ing in  green- 
house material. 
There  are  several 
large  concerns 
who  deal  in  cy- 
press, and  f n  r- 
nish  eyerythim: 
required  in  the 
construction,  in- 
cluding gutters, 
ridge,  plates, 
rafters,  sash 
bars,  ventilating 
sasn,  doors,  etc*, 
all  cut  ready  to  ^^^-  ^^-  plain"  sash  bar  for  but- 
]nit  together.  ted  glass  {Section). 

This  will  be  a  great  help  to  the  small  florist,  as  he  can 
secure  his  lumber  of  standard  shapes  and  sizes,  with 
jilans  that  will  enable  any  carpenter  to  put  it  together. 

PORTABLE     ROOF. 

An  old  plan  of  construction  is  to  make  a  framework 
for  the  roof,  witli  two  by  six  inch  rafters  and  a  heavy 
ridge  board  (Fig.  24).  The  roof  is  covered  with  movable 
sash,  similar  to  hotbed  sash,  from  three  by  six  to  four 
by  eight  feet  in  size.  If  tlie  house  is  narrow,  one  sash 
on  each  side  will  cover  it.  The  sashes  may  be  screwed  to 
the  plate  and  ridge,  and  tbus  make  a  tight  roof.  To  se- 
cure ventilation,  some  of  the  sash  may  be  hinged,  either  at 
the  top,  bottom,  or  sides,  or  they  may  be  provided  with 


36 


GREENHOUSE    COXSTKUCTIOX. 


stops  that  will  hold  one  end  in  place,  while  the  other  is 
raised  (see  hotbed  Fig.  85). 

Ill  wider  houses,  in  which  the  rafters  measure  more 
than  eight  feet  in  length,  the  space  between  the  top  of 
the  sash  and  the  ridge  may  be  covered  with  a  smaller 
sash,  the  lower  edge  of  which  laps  down  upon  the  large 
snsh  beneath.  Wliere  two  rows  of  sash  are  used  in  this 
way,  it  is  customary  to  have  all  of  the  upper  row  hung 
on  hinges  (Fig.  24),  although  if  they  are  very  large,  not 
more  than  every  third  one  will  be  required  for  ventilat- 
ing purposes,  and  the  others  can  be  screwed  down.     One 


"'f?.."t',r;t'.''|pi;;. 


FICt.    24.       GREENHOUSE   W^TH    PORTABLE    ROOF. 

great  objection  to  this  kind  of  a  house  is  that  the  rafters 
obstruct  the  light  and  heat,  and  as  the  glass  used  for  the 
glazing  of  the  sash  is  generally  quite  small,  the  sash  bars 
and  the  sash  frame  will  also  be  a  serious  impediment. 
Where  only  one  row  of  sash  on  a  side  is  required,  this 
trouble  can,  in  a  measure,  be  avoided,  by  dispensing 
with  the  rafters  and  fastening  the  sash  to  the  ridge. 

This  form  of  a  roof  is  desirable  when  the  houses  are 
of  a  temporary  nature,  and,  to  a  certain  extent,  for 
houses  in  which  crops  are  forced  during  a  part  of  the 
winter  only,  as  in  growing  hybrid  perpetual  roses.     As 


PERMANENT   SASH    BARS.  37 

a  rule,  however,  this  style  of  house  is  not  only  more 
expensive  to  build,  but,  for  the  reasons  given,  it  is  less 
desirable  than  houses  built  with 

PERMANENT    SASH    BARS. 

While  many  houses  are  built  without  rafters,  the 
sash  bars  being  all  of  one  size,  the  usual  forcing  house 
construction  is  to  have  every  fifth  sash  bar  of  the  nature 
of  a  rafter,  either  two  by  four  inches,  or,  in  large  houses, 
two  by  five  inches.  The  ventilators  are  then  placed  in  a 
continuous  row  on  one,  or  both  sides  of  the  ridge,  occu- 
pying a  space  from  fifteen  to  thirty  inches  in  width, 
each  sash  extending  from  one  rafter  to  the  next.  AVhen 
this  construction  is  used,  a  two  by  four-inch  header  is 
mortised  into  the  rafters  just  under  the  lower  edge  of 
the  ventilator,  and  the  sash  bars  are  fitted  into  this, 
at  their  ui:)per  end,  the  lower  end  being  nailed  to  the 
wall  plate. 

Another  method  of  arranging  the  sash  bars  with  a 
continuous  line  of  ventilators,  is  to  have  all  of  the  sash- 
bars  run  from  ridge  to  plate,  thus  dispensing  with  the 
heavy  light-obstructing  rafters,  with  short  headers 
between  the  sash  bars,  instead  of  the  long  ones  between 
the  rafters.  These  short  headers  should  be  grooved  to 
receive  the  glass  on  the  lower  side.  The  bars  in  the  ven- 
tilators should  be  arranged  directly  over  the  sash  bars, 
but  even  then,  this  method  of  construction  is  often 
objected  to,  as  obstructing  too  much  light  at  the  ridge. 
This  fault  can,  in  a  measure,  be  overcome  by  cutting  off 
every  other  sash  bar,  and  supporting  the  headers  between 
those  that  remain. 

A.  modified  form  of  the  rafter  construction  restricts 
the  ventilators  to  half  the  lengtli  of  the  ridge,  and 
admits  of  sasli  bars  running  from  ridge  to  plate  in  the 
remaining  sections.  One  of  the  simplest  metliods  of 
construction  is  to  cover  the  entire  roof  with  sash  bars, 


38  GREENHOUSE    CONSTRUCTION. 

and  then  cutting  off  every  eiglitli  sash  bar  four  feet 
from  the  ridge,  and  inserting  a  grooved  header  to  sup- 
port it.  This  will  provide  for  a  ventilating  sasli  two  to 
three  feet  wide,  by  four  feet  long,  every  eight  or  ten 
feet,  according  to  the  size  of  glass  used. 

RIDGE. 

The  ridge  should  be  of  either  one  and  one-half  or 
two-inch  stulf,  and  from  six  to  eight  inches  deep,  accord- 
ing to  the  size  of  the  house  and  of  the  sash  bars. 
It  should  have  a  groove  for  the  glass  on  one  side,  iu  case 
there  is  but  one  line  of  ventilators,  or  on  both  sides  if 
the  ventilators  are  not  continuous.  The  arrangement  of 
the  ridge  is  shown  in  Fig.  25.  The  ridge  may  be  sur- 
mounted by  a  cap,  and,  particularly  if  the  building  is  a 
conservatory,  an  ornamental  cresting,  with  finials  at  the 
extremities,  should  be  added.  Even  in  case  of  commer- 
cial houses,  their  attractiveness  is  so  much  increased  by 
the  addition  of  some  simj^le  forms  of  scroll  finials,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  5,  that  the  expense  should  not  be  consid- 
ered extravagant. 

DETAILS    FOR    ROOF. 

From  Fig.  25  the  details  for  the  construction  of  an 
even  span  house  eighteen  feet  wide  can  be  obtained,  and, 
with  slight  modification,  they  can  be  used  for  any  other 
form.  In  addition  to  an  end  view  of  the  house,  the  fol- 
lowing sections  are  shown:  A  side  wall  with  gutter; 
wall  with  side  plate ;  ridge  and  ventilator ;  purlin ; 
double  gutter  for  use  when  two  houses  are  built,  Avith  a 
wall  in  common  ;  roof  sash  bar,  and  of  end  wall  showing 
gable  rafter,  end  sash  bar,  and  gable  sill.  The  scale  for 
the  elevation  is  three-sixteenths  of  an  inch  to  the  foot, 
and  for  the  details  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  to  the  inch. 

In  constructing  the  roof,  the  sash  bars  and  end 
rafters  should  be  cut  at  such  an  angle  as  will  make  a 


DETAILS    FOR   HOOF. 


39 


40  GKEENHOUSE     CONSTRUCTION. 

tiglit  joint  with  the  ridge  iil)ove  and  tlie  plate  below, 
and  then  firmly  nailed  in  place.  If  the  plates  are  lolaccd 
at  the  same  angle  as  the  roof,  the  lower  ends  of  the  sash 
bars  should  be  let  in  to  them  about  half  an  inch.  As 
the  panes  of  glass  are  generall}^  of  scant  width,  if  the 
sash  bars  are  spaced  so  that  they  are  exactly  as  many 
inches  apart,  measuring  from  shoulder  to  shoulder,  as 
the  glass  is  sujiposed  to  be  wide,  a  good  fit  will  be 
obtained. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

COMBINED   WOOD    AND   IRON    CONSTRUCTION. 

The  use  of  iron  for  posts  and  rafters  has  been  re- 
ferred to,  and,  as  the  growing  opinion  among  greenhouse 
men  is,  that  the  cpiestion  of  durability  should  be  consid- 
ered more  than  it  has  been  in  the  past,  there  can  be  no 
question  but  that,  in  the  construction  of  greenhouses,  in 
the  future  iron  will  be  (piite  largely  used. 

IRON    RAFTERS   AND    PURLINS. 

Various  methods  of  construction  are  now  in  use,  one 
of  the  best  combining  a  framework  of  iron  with  wooden 
sash  bars.  For  forcing  houses,  the  rafters  are  about 
three  by  one-half  inch,  as  shown  at  (1)  in  Fig.  2G,  and 
are  surmounted  by  a  wooden  rafter  cap.  The  rafters  (2) 
are  fastened  to  each  other  and  to  the  ridge  by  iron  knees 
or  brackets  (3).  The  purlins  are  of  one  and  one-half  to 
two-inch  angle  iron,  and  are  fastened  to  the  rafters  by 
means  of  iron  lugs  (4).  If  desired,  gas-pipe  purlins  can 
be  used.  AYith  large  glass,  and  small  sash  bars,  the  pur- 
lins should  be  quite  near  together,  but  as  the  size  of  the 
sash  bars  increases,  or  that  of  the  glass  decreases,  they  may 


IKON"    ItAFTEKS   AND    PURLINS. 


41 


be  farther  apart.  While  four  feet  will  be  none  too  little, 
in  one  case,  they  may  be  as  much  as  eight  feet  in  the 
other.  When  the  vcntihitors  are  in  long  rows,  either 
side  of  the  ridge,  the  u])per  line  of  purlins  should  be 
under  the  lower  edge  of  the  sash,  and  should  carry  a 
wooden  header,  into  which  the  iipper  ends  of  the  sash 
bars  are  mortised.  To  the  other  purlins  the  sash  bars 
are  fastened  l)y  means  of  wood  screws. 

When  the  distance  between  the  rafters  or  other  sup- 
ports is  not  over  six  or  seven  feet,  oue-iuch  gas  jiipes 


FIG.     2G.        DETAILS     FOR     COMBINED     IROIST     AND     WOOD 

ROOF. 

will  make  quite  a  stiff  roof.  They  can  be  inserted  in 
holes  in  wooden  rafters  when  these  are  used,  or  can  be 
held  up  by  means  of  small  castings  attached  to  iron  raf- 
ters. When  the  roof  is  constructed  of  sash  bars,  without 
the  use  of  rafters,  a  continuous  line  of  pipe  supj)orted  by 
posts,  at  intervals  of  six  feet,  will  form  a  good  purlin. 
Fig.  27  A  shows  a  gas-pipe  purlin,  and  B  shows  the  clips 
for  attaching  the  pipes  to  the  sash  bars.  The  pi])e  may 
be  cut  in  lengths  of  six  feet,  and  screwed  into  the  tees  to 
which  the  posts  are  attached,  or,  Avhat  is  perhaps  easier 


42 


GREENHOUSE    CONSTRUCTION. 


to  put  up,  the  tees  are  reamed  out,  so  as  to  allow  the 
pipe  to  slip  through  them.  The  lengths  are  screwed 
together,  and,  if  desired,  can  be  used  as  water  pipes. 
If  the  purlin  is  connected  by  screw-joints  witli  one  or 
more  of  the  poets  on  each  side,  a  hose  can  be  attached, 

and,  although  the  effect 
will  not  be  lasting,  the 
water  contained  in  the 
pij)es  will  have  the  chill 
taken  off. 

When  a  iniie  jiurlin 
is  used,  with  supports 
more  than  eight  feet 
FIG.  27.  GAS  PIPE  PURLIN,  apart,  it  does  not  give 
good  satisfaction,  as  it  is  more  or  less  likely  to  sag.  In 
order  to  hold  the  sash  bars  firmly  down  on  the  purlins, 
iron  clips  can  be  used,  which  should  be  screwed  to,  at 
least,  every  other  sash  bar. 


CENTER    POSTS    AND   BRACES. 

In  narrow  houses  with  a  walk  in  the  center,  no  center 
post  need  be  used,  as,  if  the  wall  posts  are  firmly  set,  and 
particularly  if  a  truss  bracket  is  used  in  the  angle  of  the 
roof  (Fig.  28),  there  will 
be  no  danger  of  its  sag- 
ging. As  the  width  of 
the  house  increases,  a 
necessity  arises  for  either 

, .  ,  ,  FIG.    28.       IRON   BRACKET    POR 

supportmg  posts  or  truss    ^' 

J  ROOF. 

rods. 

In  wooden  houses  over  fifteen  feet  wide,  where  there 
is  no  center  walk,  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  row  of  gas- 
pipe  posts,  either  one  inch,  or  one  and  one-fourth  inches 
in  diameter,  to  support  the  ridge  pole,  and  if  rafters  are 
more  than  eight  feet  long,  another  row  should  be  used 
to  support  them  in  the  center. 


CENTER    POSTS    AND    BKACES. 


43 


In  wide  houses  the  rows  of  su})porting  posts  should 
be  about  six  feet  apart,  one  for  each  purlin.  When  the 
posts  would  stand  in  the  walk,  if  placed  vertically,  they 
may  be  arranged  as  braces  from  the  center  posts,  either 
as  shown  in  Fig.  29  or  in  Fig,  60.  If  the  ridge  is 
siipported  there  will  be  no  danger  of  the  walls  sjircading, 
even  if  diagonal  braces  are  used. 

In  one  or  two  houses  of  recent  construction  the 
posts  have  been  used  as  legs  for  the  center  bed,  by  insert- 
ins:  tees,  into  which  the  cross   bearers  for  the   bed  are 


FIG.    29.       IRON    POSTS    AND    BRACES. 

screwed.  The  upper  ends  of  these  posts  are  fastened, 
by  means  of  top  castings,  to  wood  or  iron  rafters,  or  by 
means  of  the  tees  previously  mentioned  to  the  pipe  pur- 
lins. The  lower  end  of  the  posts  may  be  inserted  into 
cedar  blocks,  or  rest  on  masonry  piere,  either  upon  flat 
castings  (Fig.  14),  or  in  beds  of  cement. 

AYlien  iron  rafters  are  used,  particularly  if  there  is  a 
solid  shoulder  at  the  eaves,  or  if  the  roof  is  strengthened 
at  that  point  by  a  strong  angle  bracket,  there  will  be  no 


44:  GREENHOUSE    CONSTRUCTION". 

necessity  for  supporting  posts  unless  the  house  is  very 
wide ;  but  a  truss  rod,  if  necessary,  may  be  used  to  keep 
the  roof  from  crowding  the  walls  out. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

IRON   HOUSES. 

We  have,  thus  far,  only  considered  houses  con- 
structed of  wood,  or  partly  of  Avood  and  iron,  but,  for 
many  years  houses  built  entirely  of  iron  and  glass  have 
been  used  in  Europe,  and  they  are  now  frequently  seen 
in  this  country.  In  favor  of  these  houses  it  is  claimed 
that  they  are  almost  indestructible,  and  that,  if  the  iron 
is  galvanized,  there  will  be  no  necessity  of  painting  the 
houses.  In  some  cases,  zinc  or  copper  is  used  for  the 
sash  bars,  and  the  same  claims  are  made  for  those  houses. 
For  the  most  part,  these  claims  are  true,  and,  although 
one  could  afford  to  pay  an  increased  price  for  iron  houses 
that  would  need  no  outlay  for  repairs  or  renewal,  pro- 
vided everything  else  is  equally  desirable,  there  are  sev- 
eral serious  objections  to  iron  houses,  that  have,  for  the 
most  part,  restricted  their  use  to  large  conservatories, 
and,  even  there,  the  combined  wood  and  iron  construc- 
tion is  fairly  holding  its  own. 

The  objections  may  be  stated  as  follows :  1st.  As 
iron  is  a  rapid  conductor  of  heat,  the  amount  thus  taken 
from  the  house  by  the  iron  sash  bars  will  be,  perhaps, 
three  to  five  times  as  great  as  would  be  the  case  were, 
wooden  sash  bars  of  the  same  size  used,  and  this  requires 
a  noticeable  increase  in  the  amount  of  fuel  consumed. 
Several  builders  of  iron  houses,  however,  have  so  reduced 
the  amount  of  iron  exposed  to  the  outer  air,  that,  so  far 
as  radiation  is  concerned,  there  is,  perhaps,  no  great 
difference. 


METALLIC    SASH    I5AIIS.  45 

2(1.  With  several  of  the  methods  of  glazing,  the 
packing  used,  although  tight  at  first,  soon  becomes 
loose,  and  allows  the  heated  air  to  escape  through  the 
cracks. 

3d.  Even  if  the  roof  is  water-tight,  there  will  be  a 
large  amount  of  water  congealed  on  the  under  side  of 
the  sash  bars  at  night,  which,  melting  as  the  heat  rises 
in  the  morning,  causes  quite  a  shower.  Frequently,  in 
systems  where  large  glass  is  used,  a  metallic  strip  is 
placed  between  the  panes  to  act  as  a  gutter,  to  catch  the 
moisture  condensed  on  the  glass.  If  it  works  all  right 
there  should  be  no  drip  from  the  glass,  but  they  fre- 
quently become  clogged. 

4th.  Even  if  such  is  not  the  case  in  England,  it  is 
found,  in  our  extremes  of  temperature,  that  unequal 
expansion  and  contraction  sometimes  cracks  the  large 
panes,  unless  everything  is  very  carefully  adjusted,  so 
that  there  is  more  or  less  broken  glass. 

These  objections  have  most  force  with  the  sash  bars 
used  for  skylight  glass,  in  conservatories,  and  do  not 
hold  true  to  the  same  extent  when  used  with  smaller 
panes  in  forcing  houses.  In  conservatories,  however, 
although  the  drip  is  .not  desirable,  it  does  far  less  injury 
than  in  houses  used  for  forcing  and  growing  plants,  and 
one  will  need  to  place  the  greater  durability  and  cheap- 
ness of  maintenance  of  the  metal  roofs  against  the  ac- 
knowledged increase  of  fuel  required  to  heat  the  houses. 
The  use  of  iron  sash  bars  with  metallic  ghizing,  for  com- 
mercial forcing  houses,  has  not  become  general,  as  the 
matter  of  drip  and  of  fuel,  to  say  nothing  of  the  increased 
first  cost  of  the.  houses,  are  questions  of  considerable 
moment  with  florists. 

METALLIC    SASH    BARS. 

Of  the  various  forms  of  sash  bars  and  methods  of 
metallic  glazing,  the  two  that  have  been  longest  and 


4G 


GREENHOUSE     COXSTRUCTION. 


most  extensively  used  are  the  Ilelliwell  patent  system, 
controlled  by  the  Plenty  Horticultural  and  Skylight 
Works,  and  those  in  the  hands  of  the  A.  E.  Reudle  Co. 

HELLIWELL   PUTTYLSSS   SYSTEM. 

The  Helliwell  system  makes  use  either  of  a  steel 
sash  bar,  as  shown  in  Fig,  30,  or  of  a  zinc  or  cojiper 
bar,  as  in  Fig.  31.     The  glass   is  held  in  place  by  long 


-^^O^ 


PIG, 


30.   STEEL  BAR.        FTO.  31.   ZINC  BAR. 
HELLIWELL  PATENT  GLAZING. 


clips  of  zinc  or  copper,  drawn  down  upon  the  glass  by 
small  bolts.  It  is  claimed,  by  some,  that  the  zinc  bars 
are  not  stiff  enough.  The  steel  bar  does  not  have  this 
ol)jection,  but  it  is  considerably  more  expensive.  In 
Fig.  31  the  sash  bar  is  shown,  resting  uj^on  a  purlin, 
to  which  it  is  attached  by  a  bolt.  Candle  wicking  is 
used  instead  of  putty. 

PARADIGM    PATENT   GLAZING. 

The  Paradigm  system  of  glazing,  used  by  A.  E. 
Rendle  Co.,  differs  principally  in  the  form  of  the  sash 
bar  and  in  the  fact  that  the  glass  is  butted.  The  sash 
bar  is  shown  at  A,  Fig.  33.  It  is  fastened  to  the  pur- 
lins by  lugs,  as  shown  in  the  section.     The  glass  rests 


GALVANIZED   IROX   RASH   BARS. 


47 


upon  the  vertical  sides  of  the  sash  bar,  and  is  held  in 
place  by  a  copper  cap,  D,  which  is  drawn  down  upon 
the  glass  by  a  small  bolt,  C.  The  sash  bar  serves  as  a 
gutter,  to  carry  down  to  the  plate  any  water  that  may 
enter  between  the  cap  and  the  glass.  AVhen  sheet  glass 
is  used,  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  put  it  m  place  and  bolt 
down  the  cap.  When  large,  rough  plate  glass  is  used, 
cross  gutters  are  inserted  between  the  panes.  Directly 
beneath  the  points  where  the  panes  meet  a  section  is 
cut  out  of  the  sash  bars,  and  a  jiiece  of  copper,  bent  as 

at  E,  is  inserted.  This 
not  only  catches  any  water 
that  enters  between  the 
panes,  but  the  condensed 
moisture  on  the  inside  of 
the  panes  is  trapped,  as  it 
runs  down  the  glass,  and 
IS  carried  to  the  gutter  in 
the  sash  bars.  If  desired, 
white  lead  can  be  used  in 
the  joints,  and  an  air- 
piG.  32.  PARADIGM  GLAZING,  tight  roof  sccured.  There 
should  be  no  sag  in  this  sash  bar,  and  it  seems  to  have 
several  features  that  are  valuable. 


GALVANIZED    IRON   SASH   BARS, 

Within  the  last  few  years,  galvanized  iron  has  come 
into  use  for  greenhouse  roofs.  The  framework  consists 
of  angle  and  T  iron,  put  up  in  about  the  same  way  as 
when  wooden  sash  bars  are  used.  The  ridge  cap,  cor- 
nice, gutters,  and  all  exposed  parts  of  the  roof,  are  of 
galvanized  iron. 

One  of  the  simplest  forms  of  iron  sash  bars  is  shown 
in  Fig.  33.  It  is  made  and  used  in  the  erection  of 
conservatories,  by  M.  H.  Crittenden  &  Son,  of  Minneap- 
olis,  Minn.      As  -will  be  seen,  it  much  resembles,   in 


48 


GREENHOUSE    C0NSTRITCT10]Sr. 


shape,  some  of  the  forms  of  cedar  sash  bars,  and  consists 
of  heavy  galvanized  iron,  bent  as  shown  in  tlie  illustra- 
tion. At  the  lower  edge  are  broad  drip  gutters,  wliicli 
will  not  be  likely  to  become  clogged.  The  glass  may  be 
laidj  in  any  way  desired,  with  putty.  A  Y-shaped  cap 
(2)  rests  upon  the  top  of  tlie  sash  bar,  and  is  held  firmly 
down  upon  the  glass  (3)  by  means  of  copper  clips  (4). 
Unless  the  purlins  are  placed  quite  close  togetlier,  it 
would  seem  likeJy  that  the  sash  bars  would  sag,  although 


^.^s^^ 


FIG.    33.       WITHOUT   CORE.  •     ETG.   34.    WITH    STEEL    CORE 
GALYANIZEJ)    IRO]Sr    SASH   BARS. 

a  number  of  large  houses  are  put  up  in  this  way,  and  are 
said  to  1)0  giving  good  satisfaction. 

A  form  of  sash  bar  that  differs  from  the  above,  by 
having  a  core  of  steel  three-sixteenths  of  an  inch  thick 
in  the  center  to  add  to  its  strength  (Fig.  34),  is  also 
used.  Tlie  clip  holding  the  glass  is  drawn  down  by  a 
bolt.  This,  of  course,  is  stronger  than  the  other,  but 
the  cost  is  more..  From  the  form  and  method  of  glutting 
up  these  sash  bars,  there  can  be  but  little  heat  lost,  from 


GALVANIZED  IRON  SASH  BARS.  49 

radiation  hy  tlie  iron,  and  as  the  gutters  seem  to  be 
arranged  to  catch  all  of  the  moisture  condensed,  there 
seems  to  be  fewer  objections  to  these  sash  bars  tliau  to 
almost  any  of  the  metallic  sash  bars. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

THE   PITCH    OF   THE    ROOF- 

All  jilants  require  light,  in  order  to  assimilate  their 
food ;  an  optimum  temperature  is  also  desirable  for  the 
proper  performance  by  the  organs  of-  the  plants,  of  their 
functions.  From  the  sun  we  obtain  not  only  light  and 
heat,  but  chemical  or  actinic  rays,  whose  effect  on  plant 
growth  IS  not  well  understood.  In  the  case  of  green- 
house plants,  the  intensity  of  the  sun's  rays  is  greatly 
modified  by  the  angle  at  which  they  strike  the  glass,  as 
well  as  by  the  thickness  and  character  of  the  glass  itself. 
It  has  been  found  that  about  twelve  j)er  cent,  of  the 
light  rays  are  intercepted,  in  passing  through  ordinary 
sheet  glass,  and  sixty  per  cent,  in  their  transmission 
through  opal  glass. 

This  shows  that  much  can  be  done  by  using  clear 
glass  to.  present  the  interception  of  the  rays,  and  as  the 
additional  amount  that  is  lost  by  reflection  depends  upon 
(he  angle  at  which  the  rays  strike  the  glass,  the  careful 
adjustment  of  the  slope  of  the  roof  should  not  be 
neglected. 

REFLECTION   AND    REFRACTION    BY    GLASS. 

When  rays  of  light  fall  upon  sheet  glass  at  a  right 
angle,   they  pass   through   without   being  turned  from 
their  course,  and  there  is  no  loss,  except  from  absorp- 
tion,   which   will    amount   to   about    twelve    per   cent. 
4 


50  GKEENHOUSE    CONSTRUCTION. 

When  they  meet  the  glass  at  an  oblique  angle,  a  i^ortion 
of  the  rays  are  reflected,  and  the  remainder,  less  those 
lost  by  absorption,  pass  through  tlie  glass,  and  leave  it 
in  the  same  direction  they  had  before  entering. 

Fig.  35  illustrates  the  effect  of  a  pane  of  glass,  x  y, 
upon  rays  of  light  falling  upon  it  at  various  angles,  A 
having  ninety,  B  forty-five,  and  C  fifteen  degrees,  A 
passes  directly  through  and  emerges  with  eighty-eight 
per  cent,  of  its  original  intensity.  B,  on  meeting  the 
glass,  has  four  and  one-half  per  cent,  of  its  rays  reflected 
to  B' ;  the  balance,  on  entering  the  glass,  are  refracted, 
or  bent  from  their  course,  and,  on  leaving  the  glass. 


FIG.    35.        EFFECT     OF     GLASS     AT     DIFFERENT     ANGLES. 

with  eighty-three  and  one-half  per  cent,  of  their  first 
intensity,  are  refracted,  or  bent  back  to  their  original 
direction  at  B".  The  effect  upon  the  rays  at  C,  which 
meet  the  glass  at  an  angle  of  fifteen  degrees,  is  not 
unlike  that  upon  B,  excej^t  that  thirty  per  cent,  of  the 
rays  are  reflected  at  C,  while  only  fifty-eight  ]5er  cent, 
emerge  at  C".  The  refraction,  if  anjthing,  especially  in 
the  case  of  very  oblique  rays,  is  a  benefit.  The  absorp- 
tion increases  with  the  thickness  of  the  glass,  and  it  is 
evident  that  there  would  be  more  loss  were  it  obliged 
to  take  the  course  1-3  than  there  is  in  its  refracted 
course  1-2. 


THE    OPTIMUM    I'lTCll.  51 

The  following  table  gives  the  amomit  of  liglit  lost 
by  reflection  at  different  angles  of  incidence  : 

Angle  of  ray  GO  degrees.             Liglit  lost  2.7  per  cent. 

"  "  50  "  "  "  3.4  " 

«'  "  40  "  "  "  5.7  " 

"  "  30  "  "  "  11.2  " 

"  "  20  "  "  "  22.2 

"  "  15  "  "  "  .-JO.O  " 

"  "  10  "  "  "  41.2  " 

"  "  5  "  "  "  54.3  " 

During  the  short  days  of  winter,  when  the  sun  is 
only  above  the  horizon  for  less  than  ten  hours,  as  many 
of  the  rays  should  be  trapped  as  possible,  especially  pre- 
vious to  ten  o'clock  in  the  forenoon,  and  after  two 
o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  At  the  winter  solstice,  when 
the  sun  is  farthest  to  the  south,  it  rises  about  twenty- 
five  degrees  above  the  horizon  at  noon,  and  the  slope  of 
the  roof  should  be  such  that  the  amoant  of  light  re- 
flected while  the  sun  is  between  the  horizon  and  the 
above  altitude,  shouki  be  the  least  possible. 

When  the  pitch  of  the  roof  brings  the  glass  ut  an 
angle  of  twenty  degrees,  the  sun,  at,  five  decrees  ( above 
the  horizon,  will  strike  it  at  an  ahgle  of 'twenty-five 
degrees,  and  about  sixteen  per  cent,  of  its  rays  will  be 
reflected,  in  addition  to,  at  least,  twelve  per  cent,  of  the 
remainder,  which  will  be  absorbed  in  passing  through 
the  glass.  Had  the  roof  been  given  a  pitch  of  thirty-live 
degrees,  the  sun  at  five  degrees  above  the  hori^oVi  would 
strike  the  roof  at  an  angle  of  forty  degrees,  when  only 
five  and  seven-tenths  per  cent,  of  the  rays  would  be 
reflected,  or  only  about  one-tliird  as  many  as  were  lost 
by  reflection  when  the  roof  had  a  slope  of  twenty  degrees. 

THE   OPTIMUM   PITCH. 

It  is  evident,  from  this  comparison,  that  there 
should  be  a  slope  of,  at  least,  thirty  to  thirty-five  de- 
grees, to  the  roof,  and  that  still  better  results  in  trap- 
ping the  rays  of  light  will  be  obtained  if  the  roof  has  a 


52  GKEENHOUSE    COSrSTKUCTION". 

slope  to  the  south  of  sixty  degrees,  or  more.  The  heat 
and  actinic  rays,  in  their  passage  through  the  glass,  are 
subject  to  much  the  same  laws  of  reflection  and  absorp- 
tion as  those  of  light ;  and  in  the  case  of  absorption,  the 
effect  produced  by  semi-opaque  glass  is  even  greater.  In 
determining  the  proper  pitch  for  the  roof  of  a  green- 
house, in  addition  to  considering  the  requirements  for 
the  transmission  of  the  sun's  rays  in  their  full  intensity, 
at  the  season  when  they  are  most  needed,  various  jiracti- 
cal  considerations  should  be  taken  into  account,  among 
which  would  be  the  height  of  the  side  walls,  the  width 
of  the  house,  the  height  of  the  roof  above  the  plants, 
and  the  effect  upon  the  heating  of  the  houses,  as  well  as 
upon  tlie  drip  from  the  glass. 

It  will  at  once  be  seen  that  it  is  not  desirable  to  have 
a  roof  so  steep  as  to  greatly  increase  the  glass  area,  and, 
consequently,  enhirge  the  consumption  of  fuel;  while, 
if  it  is  understood  that  plants  grow  best  when  compara- 
tively near  the  glass,  it  will  be  seen  to  be  unwise,  except 
in  "short  S|3an  to  the  south"  houses,  to  have  the  roof 
at  a  very  sharp  incline,  as  it  will  bring  the  plants  in  the 
center  of  the  house  at  a  considerable  distance  below  the 
glass.  With  flat  roofs  not  only  is  the  rain  likely  to  beat 
in  between  the  laps  of  glass,  but  the  amount  of  drip, 
from  moisture  condensed  on  the  under  side  of  the  j^anes, 
will  be  greatly  increased.  When  a  roof  has  a  sloije  of 
thirty  degrees  (seven  inches  in  a  foot),  or  more,  there 
will  be  no  trouble,  but  at  anything  under  twenty-six 
degrees  (six  inches  in  a  foot)  there  will  be  more  or  less 
drip,  both  from  outside  and  inside  moisture. 

The  use  to  which  the  houses  are  to  be  put  should 
also  be  taken  into  account,  as  if  to  be  used  only  for  win- 
tering over  plants,  no  growth  being  desired,  it  will  be 
economy,  both  in  construction  and  heating,  to  have  the 
roof  as  level  as  ]-)ossible,  and  as  good  results  will  be 
obtained  at  a  pitch  of  twenty-six  degrees,  as  in  a  greater 


MEASURING   THE   PITCH. 


53 


one.  On  the  other  hand,  for  crops  that  reauire  an 
abundance  of  light  for  their  quick  development,  the 
slope  should  not  be  less  than  thirty  degrees,  and  if  it 
can  be  secured  without  interfering  in  any  way  with  the 
usefulness  of  the  house  in  other  respects,  thirty-five 
degrees  would  be  better. 

MEASLRING    THE   PITCH. 

The  following  table  is  given  to  show  the  angle  that 
will  be  made  by  the  sash  bars  for  various  widths  of 
houses,  and  for  different  heights  of  ridge.  In  using  the 
table,  it  must  be  understood  that  the  width  is  measured 
from  the  bottom  of  the  sash  bar  to  a  point  directly  under 
the  ridge,  while  the  height  is  measured  on  a  plumb  line 
from  the  upper  end  of  the  rafter  to  the  level  of  the 
lower  end. 

ANGLE  OF  KOOF  VVR  DIFFERENT    HEIGHTS  AND   WIDTHS. 


Width 
Feet. 

Height — Feet 

4 

6 

7 

8 

9 

o    / 

^ 

/ 

o    / 

o    / 

o    / 

o    / 

6 

33  21 

30 

48 

45 

49  24 

53  8 

56  IS 

7 

29  44 

35 

32 

40  3fi 

45 

48  49 

52  07 

8 

2G  33 

32 

3G  52 

41  11 

45 

4.S  22 

9 

23  5T 

29 

3 

33  5 

37  52 

41  38 

45 

10 

21  48 

26 

33 

30  58 

35 

38  39 

41  59 

11 

24 

20 

28  36 

32  28 

36  2 

39  17 

lli 

22 

Im 

26  33 

30  15 

33  41 

36  52 

13 

21 

2 

24  47 

28  18 

31  36 

34  42 

14 

23  12 

26  34 

29  44 

32  44 

From  the  table  it  will  be  seen  that  in  an  even  span 
house  twenty  feet  wide  (ten  feet  from  plate  to  a  point 
})hinib  with  the  ridge),  a  slope  of  about  thirty  degrees 
(:)0°  58')  can  be  ol)tained  by  raising  the  ridge  six  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  plate  (the  distances  for  both  height 
and  width  being  measured  from  the  ends  of  the  sash 
bars),  while,  if  it  is  placed  at  a  height  of  seven  feet,  a 
slope  of  thirty-five  degrees  will  be  obtained.  In  the 
same  way,  taking  the  figures  for  the  width  from  the  ver- 
tical column  at  the  left,  and  the  height  for  the  ridge 
above  the  plate  from  the  upper  horizontal  row,  the  num- 


54 


GREENHOUSE    CONSTEUCTION. 


SHORT    SPAN    TO   THE    SOUTH.  55 

ber  of  degrees  in  tlie  slope  of  tlie  roof  Avill  be  found 
wliere  the  corresponding  lines  intersect. 

SHORT   SPAN   TO   THE    SOUTH. 

The  ;il)0ve  remarks  apj^ly,  for  the  most  part,  to  the 
pitch  of  tlie  roof  in  even  span,  or  in  tliree-qnarter  span 
lionses,  when  the  long  slope  of  the  roof  is  npon  the  south 
side.  It  was  stated,  however,  that  if  a  slope  to  the 
south  of  sixty  degrees  could  be  obtained,  more  of  the 
light  and  heat  of  the  sun  could  be  trapped.  During  the 
past  two  years  several  houses  have  been  erected  with  a 
short  span  to  the  south  and  the  long  one  to  the  north  (Fig. 
3G),  differing  from  three-quarter  span  houses  turned  half 
around  only  in  having  both  walls  of  the  same  height. 
As  will  be  seen  from  the  engraving  (Fig  60),  the  houses 
are  built  with  tliree  walks  and  two  wide  beds,  the  north 
oue  being  slightly  lower  tlian  the  other.  It  can  be  seen 
at  a  glance  that  the  plants  upon  the  south  bench  are  in 
an  extremely  favorable  location,  and  can  hardly  fail  to 
do  well.  The  plants  upon  the  north  Ijed,  however,  are 
from  eight  to  thirteen  feet  from  the  glass  through  which 
the  sun's  rays  come,  and  are  more  or  less  shaded  by  the 
plants  in  the  south  bed.  In  theory,  therefore,  as  a  forc- 
ing house  this  form  seems  desirable,  so  far  as  the  south 
bench  is  concerned  ;  but  for  the  north  bench  it  does  not 
seem,  in  any  way,  preferable  to  the  even  span  house, 
except  that  the  snow  does  not  remain  upon  the  steep 
south  slope,  so  that  there  is  less  obstruction  of  light  dur- 
ing the  winter.  In  practice,  however  (which  should  be 
the  real  test),  excellent  results  are  claimed  by  Mr. 
George  W.  Miller,  of  Hinsdale,  111.,  and  by  others  who 
have  tried  it.  As  a  summer  greenhouse  it  has  long  been 
known  that  this  form  is  a  desirable  one. 


CHAPTER  X. 

GLASS   AXD    GLAZING. 

In  no  jiortion  of  a  greenhouse  have  as  great  changes 
been  made,  perhaj)s,  as  in  the  glass  and  the  method  of 
setting  it.  A  comparatively  few  years  ago,  glass  as  small 
as  live  by  seven,  and  six  by  eight  inches  was  used ;  it 
was  usually  of  only  single  strength,  and  was  of  sncli  poor 
quality  that  the  leaves  of  the  plants  were  badly  burned. 
The  panes  were  often  lapped  for  an  inch  or  more,  and 
the  putty  was  placed  over,  rather  than  under  the  glass. 

The  glass  most  commonly  used  to-day  is  known  as 
sheet  glass,  either  single  or  double  strength.  The  latter 
costs  somewhat  more  than  the  single  strength,  but  it  is 
less  likely  to  burn  the  plants,  and  as  it  Avill  stand  a 
much  harder  blow,  the  breakage  from  hail  storms  and 
by  accidents  will  be  much  less,'  so  that  it  will  be  cheaper 
in  the  end.  In  selecting  greenhouse  glass,  two  points 
should  be  borne  in  mind  ;  (1)  it  should  be  even  in  thick- 
ness. Hat,  and  free  from  imperfections  that  would  cause 
sun  burning;  (3)  the  glass  should  be  of  good  size. 

DIFFERENT   GRADES    OF    GLASS. 

Glass  is  graded  as  "Firsts,"  "Seconds,"  "Thirds," 
etc.,  the  (juality  growing  poorer  as  the  numbers  enlarge. 
The  imperfections  in  glass  are  caused  by  air  bubbles, 
unmelted  specks,  or  various  impurities.  As  the  glass  is 
melted,  the  impurities  settle  to  the  bottom,  leaving  the 
glass  at  the  top  (piitc  clear.  From  this  the  "Firsts"  or 
"Bests"  are  made;  the  "Seconds"  come  from  a  layer 
just   beneath,   and   so  on   to   "Fifths"  and   "Sixths," 


TUE   SIZE   OF   GLASS    TO    USE.  57 

wliich  are  of  quite  iioor  quality.  The  lower  grades  are 
made  by  less  experienced  workmen  than  the  ''Firsts," 
and  not  only  are  they  more  likely  to  contain  imperfec- 
tions, but  they  are  less  even  in  thickness. 

In  the  past.  -'Seconds"  of  French  or  Belgian  sheet 
glass  have  been  commonly  used,  and  are  still  preferred 
by  most  builders,  but  American  natural  gas  glass  is  now 
being  extensively  used,  and  it  can  be  said  that  the 
"Firsts"  are  fully  as  good  as  French  ''Seconds,"  while 
the  American  "Seconds'"  make  a  very  satisfactory  roof. 
The  grade  known  as  "A"  quality  American  glass  is  suit- 
able for  almost  any  purpose,  wdiile  "B"  quality  will 
answer  for  many  classes  of  houses.  The  natural  gas 
glass  is  thought,  by  some,  to  l)e  fully  equal  to  the  same 
grades  of  European  glass. 

THE   SIZE    OF    GLASS   TO    TTSE. 

The  size  of  glass  has  been  on  the  increase,  until 
to-day  we  find  panes  twenty,  and  even  twenty-four, 
inches  wide  in  use.  AYhiie  this  extremely  large  glass 
makes  a  very  light  house,  well  suited  for  growing  roses 
and  lettuce,  it  is  generally  thought  that  a  smaller  size  is 
preferable.  For  widths  above  eighteen  inches  the  price 
rapidly  increases,  and  this  extra  cost  will  be  an  import- 
ant qnestion,  both  at  the  time  of  erection,  and  in  case 
of  breakage.  When  the  glass  is  to  be  butted,  square 
panes  are  preferable,  as  it  is  likely  to  have  straight  edges 
at  least  one  way.  In  sections  of  the  country  where  the 
snowfall  is  heavy,  the  danger  of  loss  from  breakage 
increases  as  the  joanes  are  enlarged,  and  although  twenty 
inch  glass  may  be  nsed  in  the  South,  eighteen  inches 
will  be  a  maximum  width  in  the  northern  states,  even 
for  forcing  houses,  while,  for  ordinary  florists'  liouses, 
the  sixteen,  and  even  fourteen,  inch  glass  is  regarded  as 
the  best  to  use,  everything  being  considered. 

Unless  there  is  a  decided  change,  the  above  widths. 
In  lengths  of  from  twenty  to  twenty-four  inches,  are  the 


58  GREENHOUSE    CONSTRUCTIOX. 

ones  most  likely  to  be  used.  This  applies,  of  course, 
only  to  sheet  glass,  as  rough  plate  or  skylight  glass  and 
fluted  glass  may  be  used  of  a  much  larger  size. 

FLUTED   AXD   ROUGH    PLATE    GLASS. 

The  fluted  glass  has,  perhaps,  a  dozen  ribs  to  the 
inch,  and  is  used,  to  some  extent,  for  large  conserva- 
tories. For  houses  of  this  kind,  built  with  metal  sash 
bars,  it  is,  perhaps,  preferable  to  either  sheet  glass  or 
rough  plate.  The  rough  plate  or  skylight  glass,  as  used 
in  greenhouses,  varies  from  one-eighth  to  one-half  an 
inch  in  tliickness,  and  from  twenty-four  by  thirty-two 
to  perhaps  thirty-two  by  forty-eight  inches.  While 
well  adapted  for  palm,  and  even  for  stove  houses,  it  is 
not  desirable  for  growing  houses  of  any  kind,  as  these, 
during  the  winter,  need  all  the  light  they  can  wring 
from  the  sun. 

The  amount  of  light  and  heat  absorbed  by  glass 
varies  with  its  thickness,  as  well  as  its  clearness,  and  as 
the  fluted  and  skylight  glass  are  both  semi-opaque  and 
quite  thick,  they  will  probably  absorb  fully  half  of  the 
light  and  heat  that  enters  them,  to  say  nothing  of  what 
is  reflected,  and  their  thickness,  although  of  advantage 
in  giving  them  strength,  is  an  objection  in  growing  and" 
forcing  houses. 

DOUBLE    AND    SINGLE    STRENGTH. 

On  account  of  the  increased  obstruction  to  the  heat 
and  light  rays  by  the  double  strength  sheet  glass,  as 
compared  with  thin  panes,  many  prefer  the  latter  for 
rose  forcing  houses,  but  it  would  seem  that  the  amount 
lost  by  the  necessity  of  bringing  the  sash  bars  closer 
together  Avould  more  than  counterbalance  it. 

While  double  itrength  glass  costs  somewhat  more 
than  the  single,  the  greatly  reduced  loss  in  case  of  hail 
storms,  and  the  fact  that  the  breakage  by  frost  and  other 


GLAZI]*JG — METHODS    AND    MATEEIALS.  59 

causes  is  less  with  tlie  former  than  the  latter,  make  it 
preferable.  It  is  generally  believed  that,  when  in  good 
condition,  the  danger  from  hailstorms  is  only  from  one- 
third  to  one-half  as  great.  The  reports  of  tlie  Florists' 
Hail  Insurance  Association  show  that,  altliougli  tlie 
amount  of  double  strength  glass  insured  is  in  excess  of 
the  single  thick,  the  amount  of  glass  broken  is  never 
more  than  two-fifths  as  much,  and  in  some  v'ears  the 
ratio  is  one  to  one  hundred  in  favor  of  double  glass. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

GLAZING — METHODS    AND    MATERIALS. 

In  setting  the  glass,  the  end  desired  is  to  so  arrange 
it  as  to  have  the  roof  as  nearly  air  and  water-tight  as 
possible,  and  to  have  the  glass  held  firmly  in  place.  As 
usually  laid,  the  glass  is  lapped,  with  the  upper  pane 
extending  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch  over  the  one  below 
it.  For  curvilinear  roofs  this  is  practically  a  necessity, 
and  when  the  glass  is  straight  and  even,  and  well  laid, 
it  makes  a  good  roof.  Nearly  all  panes  arc  more  or  less 
curved,  and  if  two  panes  in  which  the  curves  are  not 
equal  are  placed  together,  there  is  likely  to  be  a  crack 
either  at  the  corner  or  in  the  center  of  the  panes.  Care 
should  therefore  be  taken  to  assort  the  glass  and,  if  the 
curves  are  of  different  angles,  it  is  well  to  select  those  of 
one  angle  for  one  row,  and  the  others  for  another. 

PUTTY. 

For  glazing  on  wooden  sash  bars,  if  the  glass  is  to 
be  lapped,  astrals  should  be  selected  with  half  inch  rab- 
bets (Fig.  18),  which  should  first  receive  a  line  of  putty 
sufficient  to  fill  the  shoulder.     The  best  grade  of  putty 


60  GKEEXUOUSE    COXSTKUCTION. 

should  be  used,  and  this  should  be  mixed  with  pure 
white  lead,  at  the  rate  of  one  part  of  lead  to  five  of  putty. 
If  a  larger  proportion  of  lead  is  used,  it  will  make  the 
task  of  cleaning  the  bars  a  difficult  one,  in  case  of  l)rcak- 
age,  Avhile,  if  the  bars  are  kept  i)roperly  painted,  the 
mixture,  as  above,  will  hold  for  numy  years. 

The  putty  sliould  be  worked  rather  soft,  using  lin- 
seed oil  if  necessary,  and  it  will  be  found  to  stick  to  the 
wood  best  if  it  is  as  soft  as  can  be  used  Avithout  sticking 
to  the  hands  when  they  are  well  coated  with  whiting. 
Having  applied  the  putty  to  a  number  of  sash  bars,  the 
glass  is  laid  on  and  carefully  pressed  into  place,  squeez- 
ing out  all  surplus  putty  until  the  upper  end  of  the  pane 
rests  on  the  bar,  and  the  lower  u]»on  the  pane  below, 
with  a  lap  not  exceeding  an  eighth  of  an  inch.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  have  the  curve  of  tiie  glass  up,  if 
drip  gutters  are  used,  and  down  if  they  are  not.  The 
surplus  putty,  both  inside  and  out,  is  then  scraped  off, 
taking  pains  to  fill  any  cracks  that  may  be  left,  "With 
the  old  method  of  placing  the  putty  on  the  upi»cr  side  of 
the  glass,  it  was  found  that  in  one  or  two  years  the  water 
worked  under  the  i>utty  and  it  scaled  off,  leaving  a  crack 
at  the  side  of  the  pane,  as  well  as  underneath.  This 
both  allowed  the  heat  to  escape  and  the  water  to  enter, 
besides  permitting  the  glass  to  slip  down  or  bio  off,  if 
its  other  fastenings  became  loosened. 

GLAZING    POrXTS    AND    URADS. 

For  holding  the  glass  in  place  there  are  a  dozen  or 
more  kinds  of  points  and  brads.  One  of  the  best  seems 
to  be  an  ordinary  five-eighths  inch  wire  brad  (Fig.  37  A). 
This  is  stiff  enough  to  liold  the  glass  firmly  in  place, 
and  has  such  a  hold  upon  the  wood  that,  if  jjroperly 
driven  in,  there  need  be  no  fears  of  its  loosening  and 
allowing  the  panes  to  slip  down.  Another  advantage  of 
this  brad  is  that  it  is  inconspicuous,  and,  consequently, 


GLAZING    POINTS    AND   BRADS. 


61 


not  unsightl}-,  and  it  offers  ]ittlc  obstruction  to  the  brush 
when  the  sash  bars  are  painted.  One  of  the  most  com- 
monly used  gkizing  j)oints  is  cut  from  thick  sheet  zinc, 
and  ajJiieurs  as  in  Fig.  37  B.  In  shape  they  resemble 
three-fourths  inch  shoe  nails,  which  are  also  sometimes 
used.  When  driven  well  in,  this  form  of  brad  has  a  firm 
hold,  and,  moreover,  is  quite  stiff;  the  blunt  end,  how- 
ever, tears  its  way  into  the  wood,  and,  unless  driven 
home,  is  readily  detached.  It  is  also  more  conspicuous 
than  tiie  wire  brad,  and  is  a  slight  hindrance  to  the 
painting.  Two  of  these  brads  are  used  to  hold  the  lower 
corners  of  the  glass  down  in  place,  and  two  others  are 
l)laced  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch  from  the  upper  edge, 
where  they  serve  to  hold  the  pane  in  place  and  to  keep 
the  pane  above  from  slipping  down.  Large  i)anes  require 
two  other  brads  in  the  center. 

Of  the  various  points  used  for  glazing,  none  is  bet- 
ter than  the  zinc  triangle,  No.  000  (Fig.  37  C).  While 
the  smaller  sizes  may  be  used  for  the 
snuill  panes  of  glass,  or  for  house  win- 
dow saf^h,  where  the  putty  is  on  the 
outside,  tlu'v  are  not  large  enough  for 
large  greenhouse  glass.  One  of  these 
points  is  i)laccd  at  each  of  the  lower 
corners  of  the  j)ancs,  with  one  angle 
la])ping  over  the  edge.  After  driving 
it  in,  this  angle  is  bent  down  over  the 
edge  of  the  pane  so  that  it  cannot  slip 
down.  Two  other  points  are  used  in 
the  middle  of  the  panes.  The  dia- 
mond points  (Fig.  37  D)  are  driven  in 
very  rapidly  with  a  machine,  but  are  rather  small  for 
large  panes,  except  when  the  glass  is  butted.  Another 
point  that  is  sometimes  used  is  a  double-pointed  carpet 
tack.  This  holds  the  glass  firmly  in  place,  but  it  is  not 
particularly  ornamental. 


FIG.    37. 
GLAZING  POINTS 


62  GREENHOUSE    CONSTRUCTION. 

Van  Rejper's  glazing  point  (Fig.  37  ^)  differs  from 
the  above  in  being  bent  in  the  center,  so  as  to  better  fit 
tlie  lower  edge  of  the  pane,  and  to  this  extent  it  seems 
to  be  an  improvement.  Eames'  glazing  point  (Fig.  37 
F)  is  double  pointed,  and  is  designed  to  both  hold  the 
panes  down  in  place  and  to  keep  them  from  slipping, 
and  it  successfully  accomplishes  it.  Ives'  point  (Fig. 
37  6^)  has  a  single  point,  with  one  corner  bent  to  jjrevent 
the  slipping  of  the  pane.  It  is  rather  thick,  and  as  it 
tears  the  wood  when  driven  in,  it  does  not  have  a  very 
firm  hold,  even  with  the  shoulder  at  the  point.  One 
objection  to  the  last  two  kinds  of  points  is  that  they  are 
"rights  and  lefts,"  which  leads  to  more  or  less  confusion 
in  using  them,  and  another  which  applies  to  all  double- 
pointed  points,  is  that  in  order  to  hold  the  pane  securely 
they  must  be  very  accurately  driven  into  place. 

BUTTED    GLASS. 

The  method  of  setting  greenhouse  glass  to  which 
this  term  is  applied,  has  been  frequently  advocated,  and 
has  been  used,  to  some  extent,  for  many  years  ;  but  it 
has  never  come  into  general  use,  principally  on  account 
of  its  being  somewhat  more  difficult  to  reset  broken 
glass  and  make  a  good  joint,  than  when  the  glass  is 
lapped.  This  kind  of  glazing  has  many  advantages  over 
the  otlier,  among  the  more  important  of  which  are,  that 
a  tighter  roof  can  be  made,  thus  effecting  a  saving  in 
fuel ;  there  is  less  danger  of  broken  glass,  either  from 
ice  forming  between  the  panes  when  lai)]ied,  or  from 
accidents,  as,  when  a  lapped  pane  is  broken  it  frequently 
cracks  the  one  beneath ;  more  benefit  can  be  derived 
from  the  sun,  as  with  lapped  glass  soot  and  dirt  collect 
between  the  lai)s,  causing  an  opaque  streak,  and  even 
when  this  is  not  so,  the  double  glass  at  the  lap  obstructs 
more  light  than  the  single  glass.  Moreover,  admitting 
the  fact  that  it  is  sometimes  hard  to  get  a  good  fit  in 


BUTTED    GLASS.  GI] 

repairing  butted  glass,  using  the  old  method  of  glazing, 
the  labor  of  kee})iiig  a  butted  roof  in  good  condition  is 
less  than  for  caring  for  one  that  is  lapped,  as  there  will 
be  fewer  breaks  to  repair,  and  using  the  new  styles  of 
sash  bars  the  panes  can  be  very  readily  replaced. 

The  only  objection  to  butting  the  glass  in  glazing  is, 
that  upon  flat  roofs,  after  the  glass  has  been  set  a  few 
years,  water,  in  a  driving  rain  storm,  will  find  its  way 
between  the  panes  and  cause  a  good  deal  of  drip.  On 
the  other  hand,  upon  roofs  with  an  angle  of  35°  or  more, 
there  will  be  sufficient  adhesion  between  the  water  and 
the  glass  to  cause  it  to  run  down  on  the  under  side  of 
the  iianes  to  the  plate,  and  thence  to  the  ground,  or,  as 
arranged  in  some  houses,  either  into  an  inside  gutter,  or 
through  the  wall  into  the  outside  gutter. 

In  laying  glass  upon  the  old  style  of  sash  bars,  a 
thin  layer  of  putty,  or  a  film  of  thick  paint,  is  i)laced  on 
the  sash  bar,  upon  which  the  panes  are  laid  and  tacked 
in  place,  taking  care  to  securely  fasten  the  bottom  pane 
in  each  row,  to  prevent  slijiping.  In  order  to  make  the 
roof  both  air-  and  water-tight,  it  is  well  to  seal  the  crack 
with  white  lead.  To  do  this  mix  pure  white  lead  with 
equal  parts  of  good  putty  ;  spread  this  in  a  thin  layer  on 
a  smooth  board  or  pane  of  glass,  and  press  the  lower 
edge  of  glass  against  it  before  placing  on  the  sash  bars. 

In  setting  the  i^anes,  crowd  tlieni  together  so  as  to 
force  out  all  surplus  material,  leaving  the  lead  to  fill  any 
inequalities  between  the  panes  and  act  as  a  cement  to 
unite  them.  When  this  is  properly  done  the  rows  of 
glass  will  virtually  consist  of  a  single  pane,  and  aviII 
remain  for  several  years,  both  air-  and  water-tiglit.  In 
time  the  lead  will  work  out  of  the  larger  cracks,  but  if 
they  are  so  large  as  to  prove  troublesome  they  can  be 
refilled  with  but  little  trouble.  To  make  a  good  job  in 
butting  glass,  all  panes  with  rough  edges  should  be 
rejected,  or  used  only  at  top  and  bottom. 


64 


GKEEXnOrSE    COXSTRUCTION. 


Having  the  panes  nailed  in  place,  tlie  cracks  at  the 
sides  sliouUl  be  tilled  by  applying  thick  paint  with  a 
brush,  or,  as  is  preferred  by  some,  by  nse  of  a  putty 

bulb.  The  name  of  jjaint 
bulb  would,  perhaps,  be  as 
appropriate  for  the  latest 
forms,  which  have  a  small 
brush  i^rojecting  beyond 
the  end  of  the  tube,  by 
which  the  crack  is  filled, 
and  the  surplus  material 
brushed  off  (Fig.  38).  If 
very  much  paint  is  used  it 
will  be  necessary  to  sift  on 
sand  to  keep  it  from  run- 
ning, but,  when  i:)roperly 
done,  there  will  be  little 
need  of  using  sand  ujDon 
it.  If  desired,  the  use  of 
paint  or  putty  under  the 
glass  can  be  dispensed 
with,  although  unless  the 
glass  fits  snugly  it  will 
lessen  the  amount  of  paint 
that  runs  down  between 
the  panes.  Ives'  putty 
machine  (Fig.  39)  is  very 
convenient  for  back-puttying  in  repairing  roofs.  Upon 
the  more  recent  forms  of  sasli  bars  the  glass  may  be 
laid  in  paint  or  putty  if  desired,  and  the  crack  at  the 
side  filled  in  the  same  way ;  or  both  may  be  dispensed 
witli,  and  the  glazing  performed  by  merely  laying  the 
panes  in  place  on  the  sash  bars  (filling  the  cracks 
between  the  panes  with  white  lead,  if  desired),  and  fas- 
tening the  wooden  strips  in  place  by  means  of  screws, 
thus  holding  them  down. 


PAIXT    BULB, 


GLAZING   STRIPS. 


65 


GLAZING    STRIPS. 


!Por  use  wifli  lliis  iiu'tliod  of  glazing,  Gasscr's  glaz- 
ing strip  is  considered  very  valuable  by  many  who  bave 

tried  it.     It  consists  of  a  narrow  strip  of  zinc  bent  into 

the  form  of    tlie  letter  Z,  as 

shown   in  Fig.    40,    wliich  is 

placed  between  tlie  panes   so 

that  one  leg  of  the  Z  is  under 

the    njiper    panes,    and     the 

other   over   the    under   ones. 

The  cracks  between  the  glass 

and  the  strip  should  be  filled 

with     white    lead,    or    some 

other  lasting  cement,  Avhich 

will    fasten    them    together, 

and  thus  make  a  tight  joint. 

water-tight  much  longer   than 

used  betweeu  the  panes.     If  the  strips  are  not  properly 

laid,  or  if  they  are  not  cemented  securely  to  the  glass, 

the  leakage  will  be  much 
greater  than  when  no  strips 
are  used.  Aside  from  their 
cost,  and  the  labor  of  put- 
ting them  in,  the  strips 
<>l)struct  a  small  amount  of 
light,  but  with  large  panes 
none  of  these  objections 
are  of  serious  importance. 


FIG,    39.       IVES'   PUTTY 
MACHINE. 

This  will  make    a  roof 
when  the  lead  alone  is 


FIG 


GASSER  S   GLAZING 
STRIP. 

From  the  jiresent  light  that  can  be  obtained  on  the 
subject,  the  best  advice  as  to  glazing  of  greenhouses  and 
forcing  houses  is,  use  one  of  the  sash  bars  shown  in  Figs. 
20,  21  and  22  ;  have  the  roof  with  an  angle  of  thirty-five 
degrees ;  butt  the  glass,  closing  the  crack  with  white 
lead,  or,  if  a  roof  that  will  remain  water-tight  for  many 
years  is  desired,  use  the  glazing  strip.  With  glass  of  a 
5 


66 


GREENHOUSE    CONSTRUCTIOX. 


width  greater  than  sixteen  eighteen  inches,  it  will  he 
best  to  lap  the  panes.  AVhen  butted  glass,  laid  with  the 
convex  side  down,  is  nsed,  there  will  be  no  necessity 
for  drip  grooves  in   the  sash   liars  upon   steep  roofs,  if 

there  are  no  cracks  at  the 
sides  of  the  panes.  One  ini- 
])ortant  feature  of  this  meth- 
od of  glazing  is,  that  when 
resetting  broken  glass,  in- 
stead of  bothering  to  tit  the 
panes,  as  is  necessary  with 
ordinary  sash  bars,  one  needs 
only  to  loosen  the  screws  that 
hold  the  cap,  and,  slipping 
up  (or  down)  the  remaining 
panes,  place  the  new  one  in 
place  at  the  bottom  (or  top), 
41.  KEW  METHODS  and  screw  down  the  cap  ;  or, 
OF  GLAZING.  if  the  panes  are  cemented  in 

place,  one  can  be  selected  that  will  fit  the  opening. 

To  be  used  successfully,  glass,  to  be  butted,  should 
be  true  and  even  ;  as,  if  panes  with  different  curves  are 
placed  together,  water  will  be  collected  and  drip,  unless 
the  roof  is  quite  steep.  The  difficulty  increases  with 
large  panes,  and  sizes  over  sixteen  inches  Avill  need  to  be 
very  carefully  selected,  if  used  in  this  way,  even  with 
the  glazing  strip. 


FIG. 


NEW    METHODS   OF   GLAZING. 

Two  other  systems  of  glazing  are  shown  in  Fig.  41, 
one  of  which  is  for  butted  glass,  and  the  other  for  lapped 
glass.  In  both,  the  sash  bars  are  used  without  rabbets, 
which  makes  a  lighter  roof  than  can  be  obtained  in  any 
other  w^ay.  In  the  first  method,  which  was  used  by  J. 
D.  Raynolds,  of  Riverside,  111.,  the  glass  is  butted,  as 
shown  at  A,  and  is  held  in  place  by  a  screw  and  washer, 


VENTILATORS.  67 

at  the  intersection  of  the  panes.  By  hreaking  off  a  small 
corner  from  eacii,  the  screw  can  be  inserted,  and  the 
washer  will  press  the  glass  into  i)lace.  By  the  other 
method,  which  was  described  in  the  American  Florist, 
the  ghiss  is  lapped,  and  lield  in  place  by  a  piece  of  sheet 
lead,  bent  as  at  B.  The  lower  corner  of  the  panes 
should  be  nipped  off,  and  an  opening  made  through 
which  a  brad  or  screw  can  be  inserted.  If  desired,  a  film 
of  white  lead  can  be  placed  between  the  panes  to  close 
up  the  joints,  but  no  other  painting  will  be  necessary 
upon  the  exterior. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

VENTILATORS. 

For  all  kinds  of  plants  it  is  desirable,  at  some  sea- 
sons of  the  year,  that  means  be  provided  for  supplying 
fresh  air,  and  for  removing  surplus  heat.  It  has  been 
found  that,  if  openings  are  provided  for  the  egress  of  the 
air,  fresh  air  can  find  its  way  in,  and  no  necessity  will 
exist  for  considering  that  side  of  the  question,  except 
during  the  summer  months.  As  the  air  of  greenhouses 
IS  generally  warmer  than  thnt  outside,  it  will  naturally 
tend  upward,  and  vcntil;itu)n  will  be  most  effective  if 
provided  at  the  highest  part  of  the  building.  The  ven- 
tilators should  Ijc  arranged  so  as  to  prevent  direct  drafts 
of  cold  air  upon  the  plants.  They  are  sometimes  placed 
on  both  slopes  of  the  roof,  in  order  that  the  opening 
may  be  opposite  to  the  direction  of  the  wind. 

In  some  houses  large  ventilators  have  been  jilaced, 
at  intervals,  along  the  roof ;  but  better  results  are  ob- 


68 


GEEEXnOLSE    CONSTRUCTION". 


tained  when  continuous  lines  of  narrow  ventilators  on 
one  or  both  sides  of  the  ridge  arc  used. 

COXTIXUOUS    YENTILATIOX. 

When  a  continuous  row  of  ventilating  sashes  is  used, 
a  small  opening  will  provide  the  necessary  ventilation  ; 
but,  if  the}'  are  scattered  at  intervals  along  the  roof,  the 
openings  will  need  to  be  two  or  three  times  as  large,  and 
the  draft  of  cold  air  upon  the  plants  will  be  greatly 
increased.  The  openings  at  the  ends  of  the  sash  invite 
side  drafts.     It  is  a  poor  plan  to  have  a  continuous  row 


FIG.    42.       AKRANGEMENT   OF   VENTILATORS. 

of  sashes,  only  part  of  which  are  used.  Particularly  if 
on  a  high  roof,  where  shafting  is  necessary  to  work 
them,  there  will  be  constant  trouble  from  the  swelling 
and  sticking  of  the  sash.  Although  not  necessary,  the 
continuous  working  sash  may  be  fastened  together  with 
strips  of  band  iron. 

TENTFLATIXG    SASH. 

The  sash   should  be  made  in  the  same  way  as  hot- 
bed sash,  witli  a  thin  strip  for  the  lower  edge.     The 


VENTILATING     MACIUNEKY.  69 

joints  should  be  located  over  the  iiiiddlc  of  rafters  or 
sash  bars.  The  glass  used  for  the  sash  should  bo  of  the 
same  width  as  for  the  rest  of  tlic  house,  except  the  rows 
at  either  end  of  each  sash,  which  should  be  somewliat 
narrower,  to  allow  for  the  increased  width  of  the  side 
strip  of  the  ventilating  sash. 

HANGING   THE    SASH. 

The  old  method  of  hanging  the  sash  was  to  haye 
the  hinges  on  the  upper  side  (Fig.  42  A),  but  as,  for 
the  same  size  of  opening,  a  ventilator  will  be  more  effi- 
cient when  hinged  at  the  lower  edge  (Fig.  42  B),  that 
method  will  be  generally  used,  especially  when  there  is 
only  one  line  of  sash.  When  only  one  line  is  used,  they 
should  be  on  the  same  side  of  the  roof  as  the  prevailing 
cold  Avinds  come  from,  when  hinged  at  the  bottom,  and 
on  the  other  side  if  hinged  at  the  to]). 

VENTILATING    MACHINERY. 

In  small  houses,  a  simple  method  of  opening  the 
ventilators  is  by  means  of  what  are  sometimes  called  sky- 
light fixtures,  which  are  fastened  to  the  lower  edge  of 
the  ventilator  by  screw  eyes.  They  have  holes  at  inter- 
vals, through  which  a  j^in  on  the  edge  of  the  header  is 
passed,  thus  holding  the  sash  at  any  angle  desired.  One 
sash  at  a  time  only  can  be  opened,  and,  for  houses  of 
any  length,  some  form  of  apparatus  that  will  open  all 
the  ventilators  on  a  given  line  is  desirable. 

A    SIMPLE   APPARATUS. 

One  of  the  simplest  is  shown  in  Fig.  43.  It  con- 
sists of  lifters  made  of  one  inch  by  one-fourth  band  iron 
{B),  about  two  feet  in  length,  fastened  rigidly  to  the 
lower  edge  of  the  ventilator  {A),  and  extending  down 
into  the  house  at  right  angles  to  it.  A  small  wire  cable 
runs  the  length  of  the  house,  and  near  each  ventilator  a 
cord  (C)  is  attached,  whicli,  after  running  through  a 


70 


GEEENHOUSE    CONSTRUCTION. 


pulley,  13  fastened  to  the  lower  end  of  the  lifter.  The 
cable  is  arranged  so  that  it  can  be  readil}^  drawn  through 
the  house,  lifting  all  of  the  sash  to  any  required  height. 
The  motive  power  may  be  applied  to  a  small  rope  run- 
ning through  pulley  blocks,  or  by  means  of  a  small 
windlass.  As  first  made,  they  vrere  closed  by  their  own 
weight,  and,  as  they  were  not  held  down  in  any  way, 
accidents  often  happened  in  high  winds.  An  improve- 
ment (Fig.  43  D)  is  in  an  additional  rope,  attached  to 
the  bottom  of  each  sash,  and  running  through  a  pulley 
to  a  point  beyond,  where  it  is  fastened  to  the  main  cable. 
If  the  cable  at  the  farther  end  of  the  house  is  carried 


FIG.    43.       A   SIMPLE    VENTILATING   APrARATUS. 


over  a  pulley,  and  has  a  heavy  weight  attached  to  it,  the 
cable  will  be  drawn  back,  when  it  is  desired  to  close  the 
ventilators,  and  will  hold  them  securely  in  place. 

SHAFTING. 

In  nearly  all  other  ventilating  machinery,  the  power 
is  conveyed  by  means  of  a  gas  pipe  shaft  running  along 
under  the  ventilators.  In  some  cases  it  passes  through 
a  cross  placed  in  the  ridge  post,  about  a  foot  from  its 
upper  end,  and  in  others,  it  is  held  in  placg  by  means 
of  a  clamp  fastened  to  the  jiost.  The  usual  method  of 
fastening  U  by  means  of  small  hangers  screwed  to  the 


SHAFTING. 


71 


rafters.  When  sashbars  alone  are  used  to  form  the 
framework  of  the  roof,  some  method  of  hanging  the 
shaft  to  the  posts  is  desirable,  but  not  necessary. 

Various  methods  of  applying  the  power  have  been 
used,  the  most  common  of  which  is  the  common  elbow 


FIG.    44.       NEW    DEPAKTURE    VENTILATING    APPARATUS. 


fixture  shown  in  Figs.  42  and  46.  These  are  strong  and 
do  their  work  well,  except  that  they  are  applied  at  a  dis- 
advantage when  the  sash  is  just  beginning  to  open,  and 
as  this  is  the  point  at  which  they  arc  most  frefiuently 


72 


GEEENHOUSE    CONSTRUCTION". 


used,  it  will  have  to  be  regarded  as  a  slight  objection. 
Another  form  of  fixture  is  regarded  as  a  "New  Depart- 
ure," by  J.  D.  Carmody,  the  inventor.  It  has  much 
the  shape  of  a  meat  saw  (Fig.  44),  and  lifts  the  sash  by 
the  action  of  the  cogs  on  the  shafting,  upon  those  on 
the  fixture.  It  works  easily,  and  the  same  force  is 
required  to  lift  the  sash,  at  whatever 
height  it  may  be.  A  form  quite  similar 
to  this  is  used  with  the  Little  Victor 
machine,  and  is  recommended  by  the 
inventor,  E.  P.  Hippard,  as  valuable  for 
small  sash. 

Various  contrivances  have  been  ar- 
ranged, by  which  the  weight  of  the  ven- 
tilators, in  closing,  shall  coil  nj)  a 
spring,  which,  when  it  is  desired  to 
open  tlie  sash,  will  furnish  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  power.  One  of  the  best  of 
these  is  known  as  the  Ormsby  Spring 
balance.  It  has  proven  quite  satisfac- 
tory, and  Avorks  very  smoothly,  opening, 
with  the  exj^enditure  of  very  little  power, 
a  long  line  of  sash.  It  is  easy  to  put 
up,  and  the  only  objection  to  the  system 
is  that,  after  two  or  three  years  of  use, 
the  springs  wear  out. 

Of  the  machines  used  to  work  the 
shafting,  with  its  elbow  fixtures,  the 
simplest  is  the  kind  generally  used  by 
greenhouse  builders.  It  consists  of  a  large  wheel  upon 
the  shaft,  worked  by  a  worm  upon  the  ujDper  end  of  a 
rod,  to  which  the  power  is  aj^jjlied  by  means  of  a  crank, 
or  a  hand  wheel.  It  will  be  found  in  several  of  the  illus- 
trations. Among  the  more  recent  candidates  for  favor 
arc  the  Standard  and  Challenge  machines. 

The  former,  shown  in  Fig.  45,  is  manufactured  by 
E.  Hippard,  Youngstown,  Ohio.     It  is  a  very  easy  work- 


FIG.    45. 
STANDAKU. 


SHAFTIKG. 


73 


ing  macliine,  but  does  not  work  quite  as  fast  as  some 
of  the  others.  In  the  old  macliincs,  the  Large  wlicel  on 
the  shaft  sometimes  slipped,  or  was  pushed  away  from 
the  small  piuion,  but  with  the  new  double  header  there 


FIG.    40.       CHALLENGE. 

should  be  no  trouble.  As  will  be  seen  from  the  engraving, 
the  power  is  applied,  by  means  of  a  hand  wheel  and  worm, 
to  the  vertical  shaft  which  works  inside  the  post.     At 


74 


GREENHOUSE   COJSSTRUCTIOlir. 


the  upper  end  of  the  shaft  is  a  pinion,  or  bevel  gear,  by 

whicli  the  power  is  conveyed  to  the  sliaft.     We  have 

found  it  a  very  satisfactory  macliine. 

The  Challenge  machine  (Fig.   46)  is  made  by  the 

Quaker  City  Machine  Co.,  of  Richmond,  Ind.     It  differs 

from  the  Standard  in  using 
sprocket  wheels  and  an  end- 
less chain,  instead  of  a  ver- 
tical shaft  and  gearing.  The 
first  machines  made  liad  sev- 
eral slight  defects,  but  these 
have  been  corrected  in  the 
latest  pattern,  and  the  ma- 
chine now  does  very  good 
work.  While  it  does  not 
work  as  easily  as  the  Stand- 
ard, it  gives  a  more  rapid 
movement  to  the  sash,  and 
to  that  extent  is  preferable 
to  that  machine ;  the  latter 
excels  in  ease  of  operation, 
although  either  can  be 
changed  by  varying  the  size 


FIG.    47. 
A  SIMPLE   FIXTURE. 


of  the  gear  and  sprocket  wheels. 


CHEAP  VENTILATING   MACHINE    FOR   LOW   HOUSES. 


In  low  span  roof  houses  a  simple  method  of  working 
the  shaft  is  shown  in  Fig.  47.  It  consists  of  a  lever  of 
one  inch  gas  pipe  {A),  perhaps  four  feet  long,  fastened 
to  the  shaft  {B)  by  means  of  a  T.  By  means  of  this,  a 
line  of  narrow  sash  fifty  feet  long  can  be  opened  or 
closed,  and  can  be  held  in  place  by  means  of  a  pin  passed 
through  a  stri])  of  iron  (/>),  as  shown  in  the  sketch. 

OUTSIDE   SHAFTING. 

When  the  ridge  is  too  low  to  admit  of  running  the 
shafting  under  the  roof,  it  may  be  placed  on  the  outside. 


OUTSIDE    SHAFTING.  75 

as  shown  in  Fig.  48.  In  :iny  house,  if,  for  any  reason, 
the  shafting  is  not  desired  on  the  inside  of  the  liouse, 
this  arrangement,  wliich  is  used  by  Hijipard  and  others, 
may  be  employed. 

"While  a  single  wide  line  of  Tentilators  will  answer, 
in  houses  less  than  twenty  feet  wide,  tu'o  narrow  lines 
on  opposite  sides  of  the  roof  will  be  preferable.     In  wide 


FIG.    48.       OUTSIDE    SHAFTIXG. 

houses  ventilating  sashes  in  the  vertical  walls  are  desir- 
able, and  some  builders  of  three-quarter  span  houses  pre- 
fer to  have  one  row  at  the  ridge  and  one  in  the  soutli 
wall,  even  in  rose  houses,  to  having  the  two  rows  at  the 
ridge.  In  even  span  houses  there  is  less  occasion  for 
side  ventilation,  except  in  Avide  houses.  In  Fig.  42  is 
shown  a  variety  of  methods  of  arranging  the  ventilating 
sash,  and  of  attachins^  the  ventilating  machines. 


CHAPTEK  Xni. 

GREEKHOUSE    BENCHES 

The  benches  used  by  the  average  florist  are  a  con- 
stant source  of  trouble  and  expense.  Built  as  they  usu- 
ally are,  of  cheap  or  waste  lumber,  their  life  is  a  short 
one,  and  they  frequently  break  down  while  in  use,  either 
ruining  the  plants,  or  so  mixing  the  varieties  as  to  make 
them  of  little  value.  A  wooden  bench  generally  has  to 
be  renewed  within  five  years,  and  in  some  cases  three 
years  sees  their  period  of  usefulness  at  an  end.  Xot 
only  is  the  florist  required  to  pay  for  labor  and  material 
for  constructing  a  new  bench,  but,  as  frequently  the 
weakness  is  not  discovered  until  the  bed  is  being  pre- 
pared for  use,  the  delay  necessitated  in  planting  the  bed 
may  greatly  lessen  the  profits.  The  best  materials  for 
greenhouse  benches  are  iron  and  tile,  or  slate,  but,  as 
the  average  florist  will  think  he  cannot  afford  this  kind 
of  a  table,  let  us  consider  the  next  best  thing. 

WOODEISr    BENCHES. 

With  a  little  attention  in  constructing  and  caring 
for  wooden  benches,  their  durability  can  be  doubled. 
When  wooden  legs  are  used,  they  should  be  raised  above 
the  level  of  the  soil  and  walk,  upon  a  brick  or  stone  pier. 
Tliis  will  not  only  furnish  a  firm  support,  and  thus  pre- 
vent the  settling  of  the  bench,  but  it  will  serve  to  keep 
the  lower  ])ortion  dry,  and  check  its  decay.  Red  cedar 
or  locust  will  make  the  most  desirable  legs  but,  as  they 
cannot  always  be  readily  obtained,  cypress  or  pine  will 
be  generallv  used.     When  the  walls  of  the  house  are  of 

76 


WOODEN    BENCHES. 


77 


wood,  the  back  ends  of  the  cross  bearers  can  bo  nailed  to 
tlic  posts,  or  to  the  stndding,  aiid  in  liousos  constructed 
u})on  a  brick  or  grout  wall  this  can  readily  be  used  for 
supporting  them.  Measuring  from  the  inner  face  of  the 
wall,  the  length  of  the  cross  bearer  should  be  two  iuches 
more  than  the  width  of  the  bench,  thus  admitting  of  a 
free  circulation  of  air  in  the  rear.  When  the  wall  can- 
not be  used  to  support  the  backs  of  the  side  benches, 
wooden  legs  can  be  used,  the  same  as  for  the  fronts,  and 
for  the  middle  bench.  These  should  bo  about  two  by 
four  inches,  and  from  two  to  five  and  a  half  feet  in 
height,  according  to  location  and  the  character  of  the 
house. 

The  cross  bearers  may  range  from  two  by  four 
inches  for  narrow  benches,  to  two  by  six,  or  even  two  by 
eight  inches  for  wide  ones.  If 
fastened  to  the  legs,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  49  A,  there  will  be  little  dan- 
ger of  their  becoming  detached  and 
letting  the  bench  down.  If  these 
supports  are  placed  once  in  three 
and  one-half  or  four  feet,  the  com- 
mon six  by  one  inch  fence  boards 
can  bo  jjlaced  longitudinally  for 
bottoms,  when  shallow  rose  beds 
are  desired,  although  the  twelve- 
iuch  boards  are  better  for  the  stag- 
ing of  pot  plants.  To  provide  for 
thorough    drainage,    cracks    three-  ^^f^-    ^9. 

fourths  of  an  inch  wide  should  be  wooden  benches. 
left  between  the  boards.  If  deep  beds  are  to  be  used, 
or  if  large  pot  plants  are  to  be  placed  on  them,  the  dis- 
tance between  the  supports  may  profitably  be  reduced  to 
three  feet,  or  one  and  one-half  inch  boards  used.  For 
the  front  and  back  of  the  benches  strips  of  board  from 
three  to  six  inches  Avide,  in  accordance  with  the  kind  of 


78 


GREENHOUSE   CONSTRUCTION. 


plants  to  be  grown  on  them,  sliould  be  used.  If  the 
legs  are  extended  to  the  top  of  the  front  boards,  as  in 
Fig.  49  B,  they  will  be  held  firmly  in  place  and  will  last 
much  longer.     The  legs  and  cross  bearers,  as  well  as  the 


FIG.    50.       GAS    PIPE    BENCH    SUPPORTS. 

side  pieces,  should  be  thoroughly  painted  before  they  are 
fitted  together,  and  this  will  often  double  their  i)eriod  of 
use.  After  the  bench  is  completed,  it  will  pay  to  give 
the  inside  a  thorough  coating  with  Louisville  cement,  of 
the  consistency  of  thick  paint. 


IRON"    BENCHES. 


79 


The  width  of  grccnlioiise  benches  varies,  to  a  hirge 
degree,  with  the  width  of  the  house,  and  the  use  to 
which  it  is  put.  The  side  benches,  in  a  rose  house,  are 
sometimes  as  narrow  as  two  feet  and  six,  or,  perhajjs, 
ciglit  inches,  and  are  seldom  wider  than  three  feet  and 
six  inclies,  which  should  be  the  maximum.  The  center 
benches  range  from  five  to  seven  feet  in  width.  "When 
properly  built  and  well  cared  for,  benches  of  this  descrip- 
tion will  be  far  more  economical,  in  the  end,  than  the 
cheap  constructions  generally  seen  in  greenhouses. 

IRON"   BENCHES. 


Many  florists  who  are  not  ready  to  try  the  iron  and 
slate  bench,  are  using  iron  legs  and  cross  bearers.  The 
simplest  forms  are 
made  of  one-inch  gas 
pipe  (Fig.  50),  the 
lower  end  of  the  leg 
resting  in  a  cedar 
block  sunk  in  the 
ground,  and  the  up- 
per end  supporting 
the  front  end  of  the 
cross  bearer,  by 
means  of  a  malleable 


Fio.  51, 
iron  T, 


mendenhall's  bench. 
from  the  top  of  which  a 
short  piece  of  pipe  extends  even  with  the  top  of  the  front 
boards,  thus  holding  it  in  place.  The  front  boards  can, 
if  desired,  be  placed  outside  the  pipe,  and  held  in  place 
by  iron  clips.  The  rear  end  of  the  cross  bearer  is 
screwed  into  the  wall  post,  or  sot  in  the  masonry,  wlien 
possible,  and  if  neither  of  these  methods  of  support  can 
be  used,  gas  pipe  legs  can  be  provided,  the  same  as  for 
the  front.  For  center  benches  a  somewhat  heavier  con- 
struction would  be  necessary,  the  cross  bearers  being  of 
one  and  one-fourth  inch  gas  pipe.      When  houses  are 


80 


GREENHOUSE    COXSTRUCTIOX. 


iDuilt  on  tlie  ''ridge  and  furrow"  plan,  the  cross  bearers 
for  the  side  benches  may  pass  tlirough  tlie  wall  into  the 
adjoining  house. 

ANGLE   IROX    BENCHES, 

One  of  the  simplest  forms  of  iron  benches  was  re- 
cently figured  in  the  American  Florist  (Vol.  VI,  Page 
983),  as  Mendenhall's  bench  (Fig.  51).  It  rested  upon 
brick  i^icrs,  and  consisted  of  two  or  three  inch  angle 
irons,  placed  so  as  to  form  the  front  and  the  back  of  the 
bench.  The  bottom  was  of  slate  or  boards,  as  desired. 
By  using  intermediate  strips  of  T  iron,  narrow  strips  of 
slate,  or  bench  tile  could  be  used. 

Another  form  of  greenhouse  bench  has  been  tried  in 
the  houses  of  E.  G.  Hill,  Richmond,  Ind.  The  cross 
bearers  and  longitudinal  strips  are  of  a  light  street  car  T 
rails,  with  bottoms  of  slate  and  sides  of  narrow  boards, 

held  in  place  by  narrow 
strips  of  iron.  The 
bench  is  supported  on 
cedar  posts  (Fig.  52). 
The  cost  of  the  iron  rails 
is  given  as  eleven  and 
one-lialf  cents  per  foot. 
This  is  considerably 
\\^^  more  than  the  cost  of 
}¥l//f/[  ^^^®  lighter  grades  of 
angle  iron,  but  as  the 
rails  are  much  stronger, 
the  number  of  legs  and 
cross  bearers  is  reduced, 

ETG.  oa.       IIILL^S   BENCH.  ^.j^-^i^    ^^^^^^^     ^^^-^^^    -^ 

down  to  the  sanie  cost.  The  least  durable  portions  of 
this  bench  are  the  sides  and  legs ;  the  latter,  however, 
could  be  made  of  iron,  if  desired. 

Perhaps  the  neatest  form  of  iron  bench  is  shown  in 
Figs.  14  and  53.     The  size  of  the  iron  required  is  accord- 


ANGLE    inON    BENCHES. 


81 


ing  to  the  width  of  the  bench,  and  the  use  to  which  it  is 
to  bo  put.  For  a  rose  house,  the  side  l)enches  can  be 
supported  on  one  and  one-half  inch  cross  bearers  of  T 
iron  {D,  Fig.  14),  placed  once  in  four  feet,  with  one  ;ind 


FIG.    53.       ANGLE    IRON   BENCH. 

one-half  inch  angle  iron  {G)  for  the  front  and  back,  and 
two  intermediate  one  and  one-fourth  inch  T  irons  {H). 
Using  twelve-inch  slate,  or  tile,  for  the  bottoms,  the 
bench  will  be  three  feet  and  two  inches  wide.     For  the 

6 


82  GREEN"HOUSB   CONSTRUCTION". 

logs,  one  inch  gas  pijic  {E),  or  one  and  one-fourth  inch 
T  iron  can  be  used.  The  gas  j^ipe  can  be  flattened  at 
its  upper  end  and  bolted  to  the  cross  bearers,  or  it  can 
be  inserted  into  a  casting  (Fig.  14  F  and  F'),  which  can 
then  be  bolted  on.  With  such  a  casting  at  the  top,  and 
a  flat  plate  for  the  leg  to  rest  in  at  the  bottom,  a  very 
neat  bench  can  be  made.  If  sides  are  desired  to  the 
benches,  larger  angle  iron  can  be  used  for  the  outer 
edges  of  the  benches,  say  three  by  two  inches,  or  three 
to  five-inch  strips  of  board  can  be  used,  and  held  in  place 
either  by  the  edges  of  tlie  angle  iron,  or  by  means  of 
screws  put  through  holes  in  the  angle  iron. 

BEXCn    BOTTOMS. 

The  bottom  is,  as  a  rule,  the  first  portion  of  the 
bench  to  decay,  and  if  any  part  is  to  be  of  indestructible 
materials,  this  should  be  the  one.     The  most  satisfactory 


s^sL  --^;r^^-ft5^-^ '-  %^ 


FIG.    54.       TILES   FOR   BENCHES. 

bench  bottoms,  in  every  way,  are  some  of  the  forms  of 
''bench  tile."  They  are  more  or  less  porous,  and  pro- 
vide botli  for  drainage  and  for  a  thorough  aeration  of 
the  soil.  Those  invented  by  "W".  P.  Wight,  of  Madi- 
son, N.  J.,  seem  particularly  desirable.  They  can  be 
made  of  any  size  desired,  although  about  twelve  by  six 
inches  seems  a  good  one,  and  differ  from  most  of  the 
others  in  having  a  row  of  holes  along  the  center  (Fig.  54 
A).  The  form  shown  in  Fig.  54  Cis  five  inches  wide 
by  twelve  long,  and  Fig.  54  B  represents  a  tile  seven  by 


BENCH  BOTTOMS. 


83 


84 


GREENHOUSE   CONSTRUCTIOIf. 


twelve  inches,  botli  of  wliicli  are  mainifactnred  for  *' fire- 
proofing"  tlie  structural  iron  in  modern  firejiroof  blocks, 
but  answer  very  well  for  bencli  bottoms.  By  leaving 
spaces  between  the  tiles,  ample  drainage  can  be  secured. 
Mr.  "Wight  has  invented  a  bench  (Fig.  55)  to  be  used 
with  his  tiles. 

For  the  tables  in  the  show  house,  or  conservatory, 
upon  which  large  plants  only  are  placed,  large  slabs  of 
slate,  of  the  full  width  of  the  bench,  may  be  used  with- 
out any  covering.  In  the  growing  houses  some  covering 
for  the  slate  is  desirable,  and  smaller  sizes  may  be  used. 
Heavy  roofing  slate,  about  twelve  by  eighteen  inches  in 
size,  can  be  cheaply  obtained,  and,  with  a  covering  of 
coarse  gravel,  makes  an  excellent  plant  table.  "When 
used   as   bottoms   for   the   tables    in    rose    houses,    and 

for  cutting  beds,  they  are 
less  satisfactory  than  bench 
tile,  as  they  allow  of  but 
im2:)erfect  drainage  and  aer- 
ation, and  the  soil  and 
sand  soon  become  sour. 
With  careful  watering  the 
injury  will  be  somewhat 
lessened,  but  the  tile  will 
In  Fig.  56  will  be  seen  a 
)ottoms,  with  wooden 


FIG.    56. 
WOOD   AND    SLATE   BENCH. 


be  found  more  satisfactor}^ 
method  of  using  slate  for  bench 
supports. 

The  use  of  boards  for  bench  bottoms  may  be  eco- 
nomical where  lumber  is  cheap,  and  tlie  other  materials 
expensive,  but  the  more  durable  materials  will  generally 
be  preferable. 

SOLID    BEDS. 

For  growing  many  crops  the  so-called  solid  bod  will 
be  desirable.  These  are  of  the  same  widths  and  in  the 
same  places  as  the  raised  beds,  but,  as  a  rule,  are  not  as 


PAINTING   AND   SHADING.  85 

high  above  the  walks.  AVlieu  the  underlying  soil  is 
light  and  sandy,  the  application  of  about  six  inches  of 
prepared  compost  will  be  all  that  is  required  to  make 
them,  except  the  erection  of  barriers  of  wood  or  brick  to 
keep  the  soil  in  place.  It  is  generally  necessary  to  i)ro- 
vide  some  kind  of  drainage,  and  for  this  ])urpose  tliree- 
inch  drain  tiles  have  been  found  excellent.  By  placing 
them  two  feet  apart  and  eight  inches  below  the  surface, 
across  the  beds,  ample  drainage  will  be  provided,  and  the 
warming  and  aeration  of  the  soil  will  be  promoted. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

PAINTING    AND    SHADING 

In  order  to  jireserve  the  wood  from  decay,  and  the 
iron  work  from  rusting,  the  materials  should  be  covered 
with  some  substance  that  will  render  the  woodwork 
water  proof,  and  prevent  the  oxidation  of  the  iron. 
There  are  on  the  market  many  patent  paints  that  may 
be  suitable  for  certain  jjurposes,  but  very  few  of  them 
will  prove  satisfactory  for  greenhouse  painting.  If  pure 
white  lead  and  linseed  oil,  with  a  small  amount  of  Japan, 
are  used,  the  results  will  be  as  satisfactory  as  can  be 
obtained  from  any  mixed  paint,  and  as  the  covering  of 
the  framework  of  a  greenhouse  with  some  j^aint  that 
proved  worthless  for  the  purjwse  would  lead  to  a  large 
expense,  it  is  better  to  take  something  that  is  known  to 
be  good,  than  to  exiieriment  with  materials  that,  though 
apparently  cheap,  may  prove  dear  in  the  end.  There 
are  several  low  priced  brands  of  so-called  "white  lead," 
that  are  composed  largely  of  zinc  and  baryta,  and  if 
these  are  used  the  paint  will  peel  off  within  a  year. 


86  GKEEXHOrSE    COXSTELX'TIO]!?. 

If  the  houses  are  to  be  painted  white,  a  little  black 
should  be  added  to  take  off  the  glare.  However,  Some 
other  light  color  may  be  preferred  to  white,  and  a  pleas- 
ing one  can  be  made  by  adding  yellow  and  a  small 
amount  of  green,  jiroducing  a  very  light  shade  of  green. 
With  darker  trimmings  upon  the  house,  this  will  be 
found  quite  satisfactory.  While  it  is  desirable  to  use 
j^leasing  tints  for  painting  the  greenhouses,  i^reservation 
of  the  timber  is  the  main  object  to  be  sought. 

PAINTING   THE    GKEENHOUSE. 

The  priming  coat  shonld  be  given  before  the  house 
is  erected.  As  soon  as  the  parts  have  come  from  the 
mill,  the  joints  should  be  made,  as  far  as  is  convenient, 
and,  if  possible,  the  woodwork  should  then  be  soaked  in 
hot  linseed  oil.  A  long  tank  sliould  be  made,  and  by 
placing  the  oil  in  it  the  parts  can  readily  be  dipped.  If 
steam  pipes  can  be  run  through  it,  all  the  better.  When 
this  cannot  be  done,  the  woodwork  should  be  given  a 
thorougli  priming  coat.  The  addition  of  yellow  ochre, 
or  some  similar  material,  to  the  oil,  will  be  of  advantage. 

In  2)utting  uji  the  house,  too  much  pains  cannot  be 
taken  in  coating  every  joint  with  jnire  white  lead  j^aint. 
The  average  carpenter  will  not  see  the  advantage  of  this, 
but  a  coat  of  thick  paint  should  be  insisted  upon. 

As  soon  as  the  framework  is  up,  a  second  coat 
should  be  given  it.  Our  best  greenhouse  builders  use 
two  coats  of  paint  for  commercial,  and  three  for  private 
establishments.  If  only  two  coats  of  paint  are  to  be 
given,  every  crack  and  nail  hole  should  be  filled  with 
good  putty  before  the  second  coat  is  applied,  but,  if  a 
third  coat  is  to  be  given,  the  puttying  should  be  delayed 
until  the  second  coat  is  dry.  When  three  coats  are  to 
be  given,  it  will  be  easiest  to  apply  the  last  coat  to  the 
interior  of  the  house  before  the  glass  is  set,  although  it 
would  serve  to  hold  the  putty  in  place  under  the  glass  if 


REPAIXTIXG.  87 

it  were  applied  after  the  glazing  is  conipletcd.  AVhat- 
ever  the  ininiber  of  coats,  the  last  one  to  the  exterior 
should  not  be  given  until  the  glass  has  been  set,  as  then 
any  crack  that  may  remain  at  the  sides  of  tlie  panes  can 
be  filled,  and  the  roof  will  be  made  water  tight.  The 
putty  would  also  become  softened,  and  Avould  work  out 
were  it  not  painted. 

In  drawing  the  sash,  on  the  exterior,  the  i)aint 
should  be  rather  thicker  than  is  used  for  ordinary  paint- 
ing, and  it  is  an  excellent  idea  if  it  is  drawn  out  ujjon 
the  glass  for,  perhaps,  an  eighth  of  an  inch.  In  this 
way,  the  paint  will  serve  as  a  cement  to  hold  the  I3anes 
in  i^lace,  should  the  other  fastenings  become  displaced. 

KEPAIXTIXG. 

■Whether  two  or  three  coats  of  paint  are  given  the 
houses  at  the  time  of  erection,  another  should  be  applied 
after  one  year,  to  the  exterior,  at  any  rate,  although 
when  three  coats  have  been  used  the  jiaintiug  of  tlie 
interior  may  be  delayed  anotlier  year.  Tn  order  to  keep 
a  greenhouse  in  the  best  repair,  one  coat  should  be  given 
to  all  exterior  wood  work  each  year,  and  to  the  interior 
every  second  year.  This  frequent  apj)licatiou  of  paint 
is  made  necessary  by  the  fact  that,  if  cracks  open  at  any 
place,  water  Avill  enter,  and  the  rapid  decay  of  the  wood- 
work will  follow.  If  painting  is  long  delayed,  cracks 
large  enough  to  admit  water  often  open  between  the 
glass  and  the  putty,  and  the  latter,  becoming  softened, 
is  washed  out.  Through  the  openings  thus  formed,  heat 
will  escajje,  and  water  can  gain  entrance. 

PAIKTING    IRONWORK,    PIPES,    ETC. 

Iron  houses  also  require  frequent  painting,  not  only 
in  order  to  preserve  the  material,  but  to  jn-event  the 
rust  that  forms  if  the  ironwork  is  not  kejit  coated  with 
paint,  from  discoloring  plants,  walks,  woodwork,  and 


88  GREElfHOUSE    CONSTRUCTIOX. 

anything  else  that  it  may  fall  upon,  with  the  drip.  All 
ironwork  that  forms  part  of  the  greenhouse  structure 
proper,  should  be  of  the  same  color  as  the  woodwork. 
When  iron  tables  are  used  they  should  be  kept  well 
painted,  using  some  color  of  asjohalt  or  Japan  paint, — 
black  asphalt  being  cheap  and  quite  durable. 

For  the  sake  of  the  improved  looks,  to  say  nothing 
of  increasing  their  durability,  the  heating  pipes  should 
also  be  painted.  "While  asphalt  will  answer  for  this  pur- 
pose, it  is  known  that  a  larger  amount  of  heat  will  be 
radiated  from  them  if  of  a  dull  color,  than  if  they  are 
smooth  and  glossy,  and  the  efl&ciency  of  the  pipes  will 
be  increased  by  applying  a  mixture  of  lampblack  and 
turpentine.  The  durability  of  the  paint  will  be  improved 
by  using  linseed  oil,  but  it  will  have  a  glossy  appearance, 
and  if  oil  is  used  it  should  not  form  more  than  one-half 
of  the  mixture. 

SHADING. 

In  order  to  keej)  down  the  heat  and  prevent  the 
burning  of  the  foliage  of  the  jilants,  it  is  desirable  to,  in 
some  way,  obstruct  the  entmiice  of  the  heat  rays.  For 
some  classes  of  plants  a  permanent  shading  is  desirable, 
and  this  can  be  secured  by  the  use  of  fluted  or  rough 
plate  glass.  For  most  purjDoses,  however,  a  temporary 
shading  only  is  necessary,  and  some  form  of  wash  apjjlied 
to  the  glass  is  commonly  used  to  give  this,  when  shading 
is  necessary  throughout  the  summer. 

The  application  of  lime  or  whitewash,  either  by 
means  of  a  large  brush  or  syringe,  is  a  cheap  way  of 
shading  the  house,  and  is  commonly  used  by  commercial 
florists;  but  it  is  hardly  satisfactory,  as,  when  thick 
enough  to  keep  out  the  heat  rays,  it  obstructs  too  much 
of  the  light.  One  reason  for  this  is,  that  if  a  coat  of  the 
proper  consistency  is  given,  it  frequently  peels  off  in 
spotS;  and  when  a  second  application  is  made,  to  cover 


TEMPORARY     SHADING.  y'J 

these  openings,  it  is  too  tliiek  npou  the  other  jjortions 
of  the  glass.  This  wash,  too,  has  a  ghiring  appearance, 
that  is  not  pleasing  to  the  eye. 

Perhaps  the  most  satisfactory  shading  is  made  by 
the  use  of  c-ithcr  wliite  lead  or  whiting,  in  gasoline.  A 
very  small  amount  of  lead, — perhaps  a  teaspoonful,— 
will  suffice  for  a  gallon  of  gasoline,  but  the  quantity  of 
whiting  re(|uired  will  be  much  larger.  It  will  be  best  to 
make  a  thiu  preparation,  and,  if  found  to  be  too  thin, 
more  of  the  lead  or  whiting  can  be  added.  This  wash 
can  be  put  on  in  a  fairly  satisfactory  manner  with  a 
syringe  or  small  force  pump,  but  it  can  be  spread  more 
evenly  and  with  greater  economy  of  material  with  a  large 
brush,  and,  where  the  appearance  is  considered,  this  will 
be  a  better  way.  It  is  generally  desirable  to  put  on  a 
thin  coating  early  in  the  spring,  and  add  a  second  one 
in  May  or  June.  If  not  put  on  too  thick,  the  full  rains 
and  frosts  will  loosen  the  shading,  and  it  will  disappear 
as  winter  comes  on.  If  this  does  not  take  place  soon 
enough,  the  roof  can  be  wet  down  with  a  hose,  and  any 
surplus  rubbed  off  with  a  stiff  brush. 

TEMPORARY    SHADIXG. 

For  orchid  houses  it  is  desirable  to  have  a  form  of 
shading  that  can  be  regulated  at  pleasure.  Some  of  the 
roller  blinds  answer  well  for  this  purpose,  as  they  can  be 
lowered  on  bright,  sunny  days,  and  drawn  up  at  night, 
or  in  dull  weather,  to  suit  the  needs  of  the  ])lauts.  Cloth 
shades  of  light  canvas  or  fine  netting  are  less  desirable, 
but  answer  very  well.  They  can  be  used  either  outside 
or  inside  the  house,  and,  if  hung  on  curtain  or  awning 
fixtures,  can  be  raised  or  lowered  at  pleasure. 

When  orchids  are  siispended  from  the  sash  bars,  the 
shutters,  canvas,  netting  or  other  material  used  for 
shading,  must  be  placed  above  the  glass,  and,  to  allow  a 
circulation  of  air  above  the  roof,  iron  rods  should  be  so 


\)0  GKEENHOUSE     CONSTRUCTION. 

arranged  that  the  sliadiug  material  will  be  supported  at 
a  height  of  twelve  or  fifteen  inches.  By  means  of  ropes 
and  pulleys,  the  awnings  can  be  easily  raised  or  lowered. 
For  shading  cutting  benches,  there  is  nothing  better 
than  light  frames  covered  with  cotton  cloth,  although 
lath  screens  are  very  useful. 


CHAPTEK  XV. 

GREENHOUSE   HEATING. 

In  our  climate,  most  of  the  plants  grown  in  green- 
houses require  artificial  heat  to  be  maintained  from  six 
to  nine  months  of  the  year,  in  order  that  natural  condi- 
tions may  be  secured  for  them.  While  some  jilants  are 
not  injured  by  exposure  to  thirty-two  degrees,  and  thrive 
best  at  forty-five  to  fifty  degrees,  the  so-called  stove 
plants  should  have  seventy  degrees,  or  more,  and  to 
secure  these  temperatures  in  greenhouses  various  meth- 
ods have  been  devised. 

The  crudest  method  is  by  slowly  decomposing  vege- 
table materials,  and  allowing  the  heat  to  radiate  into 
the  air;  2d,  the  Polmaise  system,  which  consists  in  pass- 
ing cool  air  over  a  hot  iron  surface,  and  directing  it  into 
the  house ;  3d,  by  burning  wood  or  coal  in  a  furnace, 
and  directing  the  gaseous  products  of  combustion 
through  tlie  house  in  a  brick  or  tile  horizontal  chimney, 
known  as  a  flue ;  4tli,  which  differs  only  in  the  method 
of  conveying  the  heat,  as  in  this  it  is  taken  up  by  water 
and  carried  wherever  needed  in  the  form  of  steam,  or  by 
the  circulation  of  the  water  itself. 

The  first  method  is  only  employed  in  hot  beds  and 
similar  structures ;  the  second,  known  as  the  Polmaise 
system,  is  i,iot  adapted  for  greenhouse  heating,  although 


HEATING    AVITII   HOT    WATER.  {*^ 

when  combined  with  the  flue,  it  is  sometimes  -iised.  I.i 
some  sections  of  the  country  the  flue  is  still  made  use  of 
in  heating  small  greenhouses,  but  by  most  florists  steam 
or  hot  water  is  preferred. 

Whatever  the  method  of  heating  used,  th^  average 
person  would  consider,  in  making  a  selection,  the  flrst 
cost  and  the  durability,  the  economy  of  fuel  and  attend- 
ance, and  the  efficiency,  both  as  concerns  the  amount 
and  the  regularity,  of  the  heat  supplied.  Among  other 
things  that  would  be  taken  into  account,  are  the 'even- 
ness with  which  the  heat  would  be  distributed,  the 
length  of  time  the  systems  will  run  without  attention, 
and  the  effect  of  each  upon  plant  growth. 

HEATING   WITH    HOT    AVATER. 

This  system  was  one  of  the  first  to  be  used  for  the 
heating  of  greenhouses  in  modern  times,  and  it  is  claimed 
that  the  circulation  of  hot  water,  as  a  means  of  convey- 
ing heat,  was  used  by  the  old  Romans  in  warming  their 
dwellings.  It  went  out  of  use,  however,  until  1777, 
when  a  Frenchman,  Bonnemain,  reintroduced  it.  An- 
cient as  the  method  is,  the  hot  water  heating  systems  of 
to-day  are  comparatively  modern  inventions,  and  bear 
little  resemblance  to  those  used  even  fifty  years  ago ;  in 
fact,  the  change  has  been  so  recent  that  many  of  the 
systems  in  use  to-day  are  built  on  quite  different  princi- 
ples from  those  constructed  according  to  the  latest  ideas. 

HOT   "WATER   liT   THE    EARLY    DAYS. 

The  Romans  are  believed  to  have  used  bronze  circu- 
lating pipes,  and  the  first  pipes  used  for  heating  green- 
houses were  of  copper,  and  measured  four  to  five  inches 
in  diameter.  The  heaters  used  were  also  of  copper,  and 
generally  resembled  an  open  kettle,  resting  upon  a  brick 
furnace.  From  the  kettle  two  four-inch  pipes  ran  to 
the  other  end  of  the  house,  where  they  entered  a  copper 


9;^  GKEENHOUSE    CONSTRUCTIOTS". 

reservoir  (Fig.  3).  The  pipes  were  perfectly  level,  and 
one  left  the  licater  at  the  top,  forming  the  flow,  while 
the  return  entered  at  the  bottom. 

For  thirty  years  previous  to  18S0,  tlxe  usual  method 
of  heating  greenhouses  was  similar  to  the  one  described 
above,  except  that  closed  cast-iron  heaters  were  used, 
from  which  cast-iron  pipes  carried  tlio  water  about  the 
houses,  ending  in  large  open  expansion  tanks  or  distrib- 
uting reservoirs. 

MODERN"   HOT   WATER   HEATING. 

Modern  heaters  are  made  in  hundreds  of  designs, 
and  while  each  is  generally  claimed,  by  its  inventor,  to 
surpass  all  others,  it  is  a  hard  matter  to  decide  which 
one  is  really  best.  They  are  made  of  both  cast  and 
wrought  iron  (small  ones  may  be  made  of  copper,  zinc, 
etc.),  and  here,  at  once,  arises  a  dispute  as  to  the  merits 
of  the  two  materials. 

The  wrought  iron  is  more  likely  to  rust  and,  during 
the  long  summer  months,  when  they  stand  unused  in 
the  damp  greenhouse  stoke-holes,  they  often  suffer  severe 
injury.  Tlie  Avrought  iron  is,  also,  more  injured  than 
cast-iron,  by  the  sulphurous  and  other  gases  of  combus- 
tion and,  for  these  reasons,  it  is  claimed  by  some  that 
cast-iron  boilers  will  last  much  longer  than  those  of 
Avrought  iron.  This  has  certainly  been  the  case  with 
some  heaters,  but  it  has  been  due,  in  part,  to  the  fact 
that  many  heaters  have  been  made  of  common  gas  pij^e, 
instead  of  the  double  strength  pipe  which  should  bo 
used.  When  this  thin  pipe  is  threaded,  and  the  threads 
are  not  made  in,  the  surface  exposed  is  quickly  eaten 
through..  AVhen  no  pipes  smaller  than  one  and  one- 
fourth  inch  ai-e  used,  and  these  are  double  strength 
boiler  flue  pipes,  the  durability  of  the  wrought-iron 
heaters  will  be  increased. 


POIXTS    FOR   A    HOT   WATER    nEATHU.  93 

POINTS    FOR    A   HOT   WATER   HEATER. 

Aside  from  durability,  simplicity,  and  compactness 
of  constructiou,  the  following  points  in  the  make-up  of 
the  heater  should  be  considered  :  1.  The  amount  and 
arrangement  of  the  direct  lieating  (fire)  surface,  and  its 
proper  adjustment  to  the  grate  area.  2.  The  arrange- 
ment of  the  water  sections,  or  tubes,  and  the  circulation 
of  the  water  in  the  heater.  3.  Ease  of  cleaning  the 
flues,  and  the  arrangements  for  shaking,  dumping, 
removing  the  ashes,  regulating  the  draft,  etc.  4.  The 
character  of  the  joints,  and  the  ease  with  which  leaks 
can  be  repaired,  and  breaks  mended. 

If  the  first  and  second  requirements  are  met,  we 
may  have  a  heater  that  is  efficient  and  economical  of 
fuel,  but  the  points  noted  in  the  third  have  much  to  do 
with  the  ease  of  firing  and  caring  for  the  heater,  while 
those  in  the  fourth  will  be  desirable  in  case  leaks  occur. 

1.       ARRAISTGEMENT    OF    THE   FIRE   SURFACE. 

It  is  well  known  that  a  surface  arranged  at  right 
angles  to  the  fire  is  nearly  twice  as  efficient  as  one 
that  is  parallel  to  it.  Unless  this  can  be  secured,  it 
necessitates  a  corresponding  increase  of  the  area  of  fire 
surface,  which  will  not  only  add  to  the  cost  of  the  boiler, 
but  will  render  it  more  cumbersome,  and  increase  the 
amount  of  circulation  of  water  in  the  heater.  AYhen 
the  arrangement  is  such  that  horizontal  surfaces  cannot 
be  secured  over  the  firepot,  the  same  efl'ect  can  be,  in 
part,  obtained,  if  the  direction  of  the  draft  is  such  that 
the  flames  are  drawn  at  right  angles  towards  perpendicu- 
lar tubes.  When  this  can  be  brought  about,  it  afi'ords 
very  effective  heating  surface,  and  is  not  objectionable ; 
on  the  contrary,  it  is  desirable  to  so  arrange  the  draft 
and  flues,  that  the  products  of  combustion  are  carried  in 
as  indirect  a  course  as  is  possible,  and  yet  secure  a  proper 
draft  for  combustion,  removal  of  smoke,  etc.     By  doing 


94  GREENHOUSE    CONSTRUCTION". 

tliis,  and  by  repeatedly  bringing  this  lieated  air  n\  con- 
tact with  the  water  sections,  we  can  finally  lower  the 
temperature  down  approximately  to  that  of  the  water. 
The  nearer  we  approach  this,  the  greater  economy  shall 
we  find  in  the  heater. 

While  it  is  of  importance  that  heaters  have  ample 
grate  areas  and  a  good  draft,  the  amount  and  arrange- 
ment of  the  fire  surface  is  of  equal  importance.  To 
obtain  the  best  results,  the  grate  area  and  fire  surface 
sliould  be  carefully  adjusted ;  but  for  this  no  general 
rule  can  bo  given,  as  some  heaters  have  their  surface  so 
nicely  arranged  that  the  heat  liberated  ujion  one  square 
foot  of  grate  area  can  be  taken  up  by  fifteen  square  feet 
of  heating  surface,  while  in  other  heaters  thirty-five  or 
forty  feet  of  fire  surface  will  be  insufficient.  In  a  gen- 
eral way,  a  square  foot  of  grate  surface  will  supply  two 
hundred  and  fifty  square  feet  of  radiating  surface,  but, 
as  a  rule,  it  will  be  more  economical  if  two  hundred 
square  feet  of  radiating  surface  is  taken  as  the  limit. 

2.       ARRANGEMENT   OF   THE    WATER   SECTIONS    AND 
TUBES. 

The  arrangement  of  the  fire  surface  will,  of  course, 
determine  the  position  of  the  water  in  the  sections  and 
tubes,  but  will  not,  necessarily,  regulate  the  direction  of 
the  flow,  the  amount  of  water,  etc.  The  circulation  of 
the  water  in  the  ordinary  heaters  is  viertical,  horizontal, 
in  drop  tubes,  or  a  combination  of  two,  or  even  all  three 
of  these  ways. 

The  circulation  in  the  heater  should  be  as  short  as 
possible,  and  it  is  better  to  have  the  water  spread  out  in 
thin  sheets,  and  with  the  arrangement  such  that  the 
water  is  divided  into  a  number  of  portions,  each  of 
which  makes  a  single  short  circulation,  than  it  is  to  have 
the  entire  mass  of  water  that  flows  through  the  heater 
warmed  by  convection,  or  compelled  to  pass  in  a  zigzag 


POINTS    FOR    A   HOT    WATER    HEATER.  95 

course  tlirough  a  number  of  dilTorent  tubes  and  sections. 
In  this  way,  too,  tlio  friction  will  be  decreased  and  the 
circulation  improved. 

So  far  as  circulation  goes,  the  vertical  tube  tends  to 
reduce  friction,  and  to  this  extent  it.  is  dcsirabU".  On 
the  other  hand,  the  friction  produced  by  one  circuit  of 
the  water  in  a  horizontal  section  is  so  slight  that  it  is 
often  more  than  counterbalanced  by  the  increased  effi- 
ciency of  the  horizontal  fire  surface. 

The  drop  tubes  used  in  many  boilers  present  a  very 
good  fire  surface,  -as  the  ends  are  directly  over  the  grate, 
and,  as  the  water  circulation  is  vertical,  they  form  a  very 
effective  portion  of  the  heater.  When  large  tubes  are 
used  there  is  little  danger  of  their  filling  up  with  sedi- 
ment, and  the  principal  objection  that  can  be  urged 
against  them  is  that  the  water  cannot  be  drawn  off  from 
them. 

Another  thing  that  it  is  desirable  to  secure,  if  possi- 
ble, is  the  bringing  of  the  products  of  combustion,  as 
they  are  about  to  leave  the  heater,  in  contact  with  tubes  or 
sections  containing  the  return  water.  It  can  be  readily 
seen  that  water  at  175°  coming  back  in  the  returns,  can 
still  take  up  heat  from  gases  that  have  been  in  contact 
with  iron  surfaces  that  are  200°  or  more.  In  this  way 
considerable  heat  will  be  saved  that  would  otherwise  jxiss 
ujJ  the  smoke  pipe. 

3.       ARRANGEMENTS    FOR   CLEANING   AND   FIRING. 

It  is  self-evident  that  anything  that  adds  to  the  con- 
venience of  a  heater  will  be  desirable,  and  the  matter  of 
shaking,  dumping,  and  regulating  of  drafts  should  be 
considered.  Of  especial  importance,  however^  is  the 
matter  of  cleaning  the  flues.  Unless  there  is  a.  great 
loss  of  heat,  a  heater  cannot  be  made  in  which  there  will 
not  be,  in  some  portion,  an  accumulation  of  soot,  and  if 
this  is  upon  any  of   the  heating  surfaces  it  should  be 


96  GREENHOUSE    COXSTRICTION. 

frequently  removed.  A  heater  in  wliicli  the  flues  can- 
not be  kept  clean  is  of  little  value,  and  the  greater  the 
ease  with  wiiich  it  can  be  done,  the  better.  If  the  sur- 
face reciuiring  cleaning  is  small  and  easily  cleaned,  the 
actual  troul)le  would  be  very  slight,  and  although  the 
flues  of  some  heaters  are  practically  self-cleaning,  their 
heating  surface  may  be  less  efl'ective,  which  would  more 
than  counterbalance  the  cleaning  required  by  the  other. 

4.       SIMPLICITY    OP    CONSTRUCTIOISr. 

Many  heaters  are  quite  intricate  iu  their  construc- 
tion, and  the  different  ])arts  are  fastened  with  screw 
joints,  or,  as  is  more  common,  the  joints  are  packed  and 
the  parts  are  drawn  together  with  bolts.  Everything 
else  being  equal  the  fewer  joints  there  are,  the  less 
chance  there  will  be  of  leaks,  and  in  selecting  a  heater 
this  should  be  considered,  as  well  as  the  character  and 
location  of  the  joints.  The  screw  joint  is  perhaps  the 
surest,  but  it  has  one  ejection,  particularly  in  wrought- 
iron  heaters,  as  the  threads  tend  to  increase  the  corrod- 
ing influence  of  the  sulj^hur  gases.  Packed  joints  are 
fairly  reliable,  but  it  is  desirable  that  they  be  easy  of 
access,  and  so  arranged  that  they  can  l)e  repacked  should 
serious  leaks  occur.  Some  of  the  sectional  heaters  are 
so  constructed  that,  if  one  section  is  broken  in  any  way, 
it  can  be  cut  ont  of  the  circulation,  and  the  heater  can 
then  be  used  without  it  until  the  section  is  mended  or  a 
new  one  procured.  In  case  the  section  has  to  be  replaced 
by  another,  the  arrangement  should  be  such  that  the 
change  can  be  readily  made. 

While  all  of  the  points  enumerated  above  arc  deemed 
desirable  in  a  heater,  it  can  still  be  of  great  value  if  it 
does  not  possess  one  or  more  of  them  ;  but  in  selecting 
a  heater,  while  the  fact  that  one  or  more  important  fea- 
tures were  lacking  might  not  prevent  its  being  chosen, 
it  would  be  well  to  take  the  one  which  comes  the  nearest 
to  possessing  them  all. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

PIPES   A]^D    PIPING. 

In  tlie  old  styles  of  hot  water  i)lants,  tlie  pipes  were 
of  four-inch  cast-iron,  put  together  with  slioulders  and 
packed  joints,  and  with  large  expansion  and  distributing 
tanks  at  the  ends  of  tlie  runs,  and  at  the  points  wliere 
the  branches  left  the  main  lines.  In  the  modern  system 
two-inch  i)ipe  is  the  largest  used  for  the  coils,  wliilc  one 
and  one-fourth  inch  and  one  and  one-half  inch  are  i)re- 
ferred  for  short  runs. 

Some  of  the  advantages  of  the  modern  system  may 
be  stated  as  follows:  The  lengths  of  pipe  are  from  two 
to  nearly  four  times  as  long,  and  can  be  screwed  together 
instead  of  having  to  pack  the  numerous  joints  ;  there  is 
less  chance  of  leaky  joints  or  of  cracked  ])ii)es ;  althongh 
the  cast-iron  four-inch  pipe  has  only  twice  the  radiating 
surface,  it  is  necessary  to  provide  four  times  the  amount 
of  water  for  the  circulation  that  the  two-inch  contains; 
on  account  of  the  size  and  weight  of  the  four-inch  ])ipe 
it  is  necessary  to  have  them  low  down  under  the  benches 
but  little  above  the  level  of  the  heater,  while  the  small 
wrought-iron  pipe  can  be  carried  in  the  very  angle  of  the 
ridge  if  desired,  and  thus  a  far  more  rapid  circulation 
can  be  maintained  than  with  large  pipe ;  the  largo  i)ipe 
carrying  a  large  quantity  of  water  and  giving  a  slow 
circulation,  is  at  a  much  lower  temperature,  particu- 
larly on  the  returns,  and  a  smaller  radiating  surface  will 
suffice  when  small  pipe  is  used,  so  that  some  florists 
count  a  two-inch  Avrought-iron  pipe  equivalent  in  heat- 
ing cajDacity  to  a  four-inch  cast-iron  pipe;  from  the 
7  07 


98  GREEXHOUSE    CONSTRUCTIOX. 

large  pipe  the  amount  of  lieat  given  off  on  briglit,  sunny 
days  when  it  is  not  needed,  will  be  from  two  to  four 
times  as  much  as  from  small  ones,  and  this  will  neces- 
sitate increased  ventilation  and  perhaps  cause  serious 
injury  from  drafts  of  cold  air,  to  say  nothing  of  the  loss 
of  heat;  finally,  in  addition  to  the  points  enumerated 
above,  the  small  pipes  will  give  a  much  more  econom- 
ical circulation  than  the  large  ones,  they  can  be  carried 
to  a  much  greater  distance,  and  the  heat  will  be  far 
more  even. 

It  has  been  claimed  that  the  large  piping  is  safer  to 
use,  as  it  will  hold  the  heat  longer.  This  is  undoubtedly 
true,  if  the  fire  is  allowed  to  go  out ;  but,  with  a  well- 
arranged  system,  a  regular,  even  temperature  can  be 
maintained  Avith  small  pipes  for  ten  to  twelve  hours,  on 
mild  Avinter  nights,  and  seven  to  eight  hours  on  severe 
nights,  which  is  as  long  as  it  is  desirable  for  the  houses 
to  go  without  attention. 

The  term  "upward  pressure  "  is  of  ten  used  in  speak- 
ing of  hot  water  circulation  ;  but  although  it  is  a  con- 
venient one  to  use,  it  really  has  nothing  to  do  with  the 
circulation,  as  there  is  no  pressure  of  the  kind  exerted. 
Hot  water  has  a  dowrniHird  pressure  equal  to  its  own 
weight,  and  the  only  reason  for  circulating  is  that  the 
weight  of  the  hot  water  is  more  than  balanced  by  the 
weight  of  the  cooler  water  in  the  pipe,  and  it  j^asses 
upward,  pressed  out  of  the  way  by  the  heavier  cool  water 
which  pushes  into  its  place.  The  same  thing  can  he 
seen  in  a  kettle  of  water  where  the  water  in  the  center  is 
warmed  and  is  pushed  to  the  top,  while  the  cool  water 
from  above  takes  its  place.  The  method  of  circulating 
in  a  hot  water  apparatus  can  be  best  understood  by 
reference  to  one  of  the  old  styles,  as  shown  in  Pig.  3 
{a  represents  the  heater,  e  the  expansion  tank,  and  g  the 
flow  and  return  pipe).  Let  us  suppose  that  a  fire  is  built 
under  the  boiler,  and  that  the  water  contained  therein 


HOW   SHALL  TPIE    PIPES   SLOI'E?  09 

becomes  warm,  tlie  same  as  in  ;ni  ordinary  kcUlo.  Tt  is 
known  that  water  when  warmed  from  39"  to  212°  in- 
creases in  bulk  one  tvvcnty-foiirth.  If  tlie  water  in  a 
is  warmed  up  to  the  boiling  point  it  has  decreased  in 
weight,  per  cubic  inch,  one  twenty-fonrtli.  The  water 
then  in  e  is  one  twenty-fourth  heavier  than  in  a,  and,  to 
establish  an  equilibrium,  the  Avater  in  e  will  pass  along 
the  lower  pipe  to  a,  crowding  tlie  lighter  water  into  the 
upper  pipe. 

If  the  heat  is  continued,  other  particles  are  set  in 
motion  the  same  way,  and  the  rapidity  of  the  circulation 
will  increase  until  it  is  balanced  by  the  friction.  The 
circulating  force  is  governed  by  the  comparative  weight 
of  the  warm  water  in  the  different  i)arts  of  the  system. 
The  pressure  of  the  water  varies  with  the  height  of  the 
columns,  as  Avell  as  the  temperature  of  the  water.  If 
the  height  of  the  columns  is  increased,  the  difference 
between  the  w^eights  of  the  two  columns  will  be  increased 
in  about  the  same  ratio,  and  as  this  differe?ice  in  weight 
is  what  causes  water  to  circulate,  the  reason  for  the 
success  of  the  overnead  system  of  piping  can  be  readily 
seen.  The  same  effect  could,  however,  be  secured  were 
it  convenient  to  do  so  by  lowering  the  heater. 

There  has  been  considerable  discussion  for  many 
years  as  to  the  best  way  of  running  the  pipes,  but  even 
now  very  few  persons  agree  as  to  the  pro2)er  method  of 
arranging  them, 

HOW    SHALL   THE   PIPES   SLOPE? 

Among  the  various  methods  are  the  "up-hill," 
''  down-hill,"  and  " level,"  and  these  are  shown  in  Fig,  57, 
1,  2,  and  3  ;  the  last,  however,  is  not  desirable  when 
small  pipes  are  used.  In  each  case  the  height  of  the  flow 
pipe  at  the  point  where  it  starts  to  make  a  circuit  of  the 
house  is  six  feet  above  the  bottom  of  the  boiler,  but  in 
the  first  case  the  pipe  rises  one  foot  in  passing  through 


100 


GREENHOUSE    CONSTRUCTION. 


the  house  ;  in  tlie  second  it  falls  m  foot,  and  in  the  third 
it  does  not  change  its  level.  In  changing  direction  at 
the  farther  end,  a  foot  fall  is  made  by  each  pipe,  and  on 
tlie  j-eturn  a  fall  of  one  foot  is  made  by  the  first  and 
second  systems,  while  the  third  remains  at  the  same 
height  until  it  has  nearly  reached  the  heater,  when  it 
drops  to  the  level  of  the  bottom  of  the  heater. 

Tlie  "  pressure  "  is  determined  by  the  relatiye  weight 
of  the  water  on  either  side  of  the  highest  point  of  the 


(1) 


(^0 


(''5) 


FIG.    57.       THE    SLOPE    OF  THE   PIPES. 

system,  and  it  would  have  been  a  fairer  comparison  had 
the  flow  pipe  for  the  "up-hill"  system  left  the  heater  at 
a  height  of  five  feet  rather  than  six,  as  the  highest  point 
in  each  system  would  then  have  been  six  feet  above  the 
bottom  of  the  boiler.  When  the  size  and  the  length  of 
the  pipe,  the  connections,  etc.,  are  the  same,  the  system 


HOAV    SHALL  THE   PIPES   SLOPE?  1()1 

that  is  arranged  to  give  the  greatest  difference  between 
the  weights  of  the  water  on  either  side  of  tlie  liighest 
point,  will  have  the  best  circnhition,  everything  else  being 
equal.  For  convenience  let  us  consider  that  in  each 
system  the  "flow"  pipe  extends  from  the  heater  to  the 
highest  point  of  the  piinng,  and  the  returns  extend  from 
that  point  back  to  the  boiler,  entering  at  the  bottom. 
To  secure  a  good  circulation,  the  water  in  the  flow  pipe 
should  be  as  light  (hot)  as  possible,  and,  that  it  may  not 
be  subjected  to  cooling  influences,  the  pijie  should  be  as 
short  as  possible.  If  the  flow  pipe  is  short,  then  the 
highest  point  in  the  system  must  be  near  the  heater. 

In  order  that  there  may  be  a  difference  in  the  weight 
of  the  two  columns  of  water,  that  in  the  return  pipes 
should  be  as  heavy  (cool)  as  possible,  and  this  can  be  best 
secured,  everything  else  being  equal,  if  the  distance  is 
considerable.  Turning  to  the  illustration  we  shall  see 
that  the  highest  point  in  (2)  and  (3)  is  directly  over  the 
heater,  Avhile  in  (1)  it  is  at  the  extreme  end  of  the  sj^stem  ; 
the  return  in  (1)  is  only  one-half  as  long  as  in  (2)  and  (3), 
so  that  the  cooling  will  be  only  about  one-half  as  great. 

As  we  wish  to  keep  the  water  in  the  pipe  between 
the  heater  and  the  highest  point  of  the  system  from 
cooling,  a  large  pipe  should  there  be  used,  while,  as  it 
is  desirable  to  cool  off  the  water  in  the  returns,  the 
remainder  of  the  system  should  be  of  small  pipe.  Con- 
sidering the  average  temperature  of  the  water  in  the  flow 
pi^jc  to  be  200°  F.,  and  that  in  the  returns  170°,  a  cubic 
foot  of  the  latter  will  be  one-eightieth  heavier  than  a 
cubic  foot  of  water  at  200°.  If  a  pipe  one  foot  high 
contains  one  pound  of  water  at  200°,  the  same  pipe  will 
hold  1.0125  pounds  of  water  at  170°,  and  were  the  two 
united  tliere  would  be  a  "pressure"  of  .0125  of  a  pound. 
Were  each  pipe  ten  feet  long,  the  water  in  one  would 
weigh  ten  pounds  and  in  the  other  10.125  pounds,  and 
there  Avould    be   a  pressure  of   an  eighth  of   a   ])ouud. 


102  GREENHOUSE    CONSTRUCTION. 

while  at  eighty  feet  there  would  be  one  pound  i^ressure, 
or  eighty  times  as  much  as  at  one  foot. 

It  will  thus  bo  seen  that  the  pressure  increases  with 
the  height  of  the  columns.  As  we  wish  to  have  as  much 
weight  as  possible  in  the  returns,  they  should  be  brought 
back  to  a  point  near  the  heater  at  as  near  a  level  as  pos- 
sible, and  at  the  greatest  convenient  height.  As  just 
shown,  if  a  flow  pipe  is  filled  with  water  at  200°  and  we 
consider  it  to  weigh  one  pound  for  each  foot  of  pipe, 
there  will  be  a  pressure  of  .125  of  a  pound  from  a  return 
filled  with  water  at  170°  F.,  if  the  pipes  are  each  ten 
feet  high.  This  would  be  the  pressure  then  in  a  hot 
water  apparatus  under  the  above  conditions,  i.  e.,  the 
flow  pipe  rises  ten  feet  above  the  heater,  and  passing 
through  the  house  returns  to  a  ])oint  over  the  heater, 
"without  changing  its  height. 

On  the  other  hand,  suppose  that  after  passing  to  the 
farther  end  of  the  house  it  drops  perpendicularly  five 
feet  and  returns  at  that  level  to  the  heater.  There  will 
then  be  a  head  of  five  feet  where  the  water  has  a  tem- 
perature of  185°  and  of  five  feet  when  it  has  cooled  down 
to  170°,  and  we  should  have 

(185°)  1.0057X5=5.0285 
(170°)  1.0125X5=5.0625 

10.0910-10.=.0910  lbs. 

As  compared  with  a  pressure  of  0.125  of  a  pound  when 
the  return  was  ten  feet  iiigh,  this  shows  a  jiressure  of 
only  .0910  of  a  pound,  or  a  loss  of  .034  of  a  pound  as 
comimred  with  the  other  method.  In  order  to  allow  the 
air  to  escape,  the  pipes  cannot  be  carried  on  a  level,  and 
hence  as  the  next  best  method  they  should  be  given  a 
gradual  fall  throughout  their  length,  taking  pains  to 
keep  them  as  high  as  possible  in  order  to  secure  pressure. 
While  it  will  be  best  to  have  long  straight  runs,  with  the 
same  sloue  throughout,  if  necessary  there  may  be  vari- 


OVER    VS.    UNDER   BENCH    PIPING.  10.3 

ous  changes  in  the  level  of  the  pipes,  and  eirciilation  can 
still  be  kept  up,  provided  tlie  necessary  vents  for  remov- 
ing the  air  are  provided,  and  the  pressure,  as  explained 
above,  is  .sufficient  to  overcome  all  friction. 

In  some  cases  the  down-hill  i)iping  {'i),  Fig.  57, 
cannot  he  used  to  advantage,  and  the  ui>-hill  system  (1), 
will  serve  the  puri)ose.  ^Yitll  the  slight  difference  in 
level  that  can  he  secured  in  greenhouse  heating,  particu- 
larly if  the  pipes  are  under  the  bench,  the  difference  in 
efficiency  will  hardly  he  noticeable.  Theoretically,  the 
level  piping,  as  in  Fig.  57  (3),  gives  the  greatest  pressure  ; 
the  down-hill  system  comes  next,  and  the  u[)-hill  i)iping 
gives  the  least  pressure,  although,  as  piped  in  Fig.  57  (1), 
the  pressure  with  a  coil  seven  feet  high  is  about  the  same 
as  with  the  level  piping  in  a  coil  six  feet  high. 

OYER   vs.    UNDER  BENCH    PIPING, 

It  is  unquestionable  that  if  all  the  i)ipes  are  above 
the  benches,  the  circulation  will  be  better  than  if  all,  or 
even  a  part  of  them,  are  below.  If  one  or  two  pipes  are 
placed  upon  each  plate,  and  the  others  near  the  purlins, 
the  amount  of  light  obstructed  will  be  comparatively 
small ;  the  heat,  however,  will  not  be  as  well  distributed 
as  if  the  pijses  are  spread  out  below  the  benches.  Expei'i- 
ments  to  test  the  matter  have  shown  little  if  any  differ- 
ence in  the  results,  whether  all  of  the  pipes  are  above  or 
below  the  benches,  but  with  the  feed  pipe  above  the 
bench  and  the  coils  belo^w,  there  is  an  imi)rovement  in 
circulation,  and  fully  as  good  if  not  better  growth  of 
plants  as  when  all  are  below,  and  this  plan  should  be 
used  whenever  practicable. 

The  principal  benefits  from  overhead  piping  are  (1) 
the  melting  of  snow  and  ice  on  the  roof,  (2)  taking  the 
chill  from  cold  drafts  of  air  and  (3)  drying  off  the 
plants  after  syringing,  all  of  which  will  be  largely  done 
by  the  overhead  main.     The  overhead  system,  moreover, 


104:  GHEENnOUSE    CONSTRUCTION. 

carries   the  coils   higher  than  they  are  in  the  imder- 
bench  system  and  a  more  rapid  circulation  is  secured. 

Some  houses  have  been  piped  with  the  flow  pipes 
under  the  side  benches,  and  the  returns  above  the 
benches.  While  this  gives  a  good  circulation,  better 
results  can  be  obtained  if  the  pipes  are  placed  in  the 
same  way  except  that  the  overhead  pipes  are  attached 
to  the  flow  pipe  from  the  boiler,  and  those  under  the 
benches  to  the  returns.  The  returns  under  the  bench 
can  either  be  of  the  same  size  as  those  above,  or  of  a 
laroer  size. 


CHAPTER   XVII. 

SIZE   AND    AMOUNT   OF    PIPE. 

The  size  of  pipe  best  suited  for  the  coils  depends 
upon  the  length  as  well  as  upon  the  height  of  the  coils. 
Considered  as  radiating  surface  only,  one-inch  pipe  would 
be  preferable,  but,  except  for  very  short  runs,  since  the 
friction  increases  as  the  size  of  the  pipe  decreases,  a 
larger  size  should  generally  be  used.  Inch  and  one- 
quarter  pipe  can  be  used  to  advantage  in  coils  not  over 
forty  feet  long,  and  if  the  height  is  sufficient,  the  length 
may  be  considerably  increased.  For  coils  up  to  seventy- 
five  feet  in  lengtli,  one  and  one-half  inch  pij^e  will  be 
entirely  satisfactory.  Two-inch  pipe  will  work  well  up 
to  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet,  but  it  is  better  in  all 
houses  over  one  hundred  feet  long  to  use  two  or  more 
short  coils  of  one  and  one-half  inch  pipe.  In  this  way, 
by  having  proper  flow  and  return  pipes  connected  with 
the  coils,  houses  three  hundred  feet  long  can  be  heated 
with  hot  water. 

If  it  can  be  so  arranged,  however,  it  will  be  better 
to  have  houses  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  long  on  cither 


SIZE    FOU    MAINS.  Kjj 

side  of  a  potting  shed  and  connecting  passage,  wliicli 
will  really  make  houses  three  hundred  feet  long  while, 
with  the  heater  located  at  the  center,  they  will  be  only 
one  liundred  and  fifty  feet  in  length  so  far  as  the  heat- 
ing apparatus  is  concerned. 

SIZE    FOR   MAINS. 

In  determining  the  size  for  tlie  feed  pipes  the  length 
of  the  house  and  the  height  that  the  coils  will  have,  should 
be  considered,  as  well  as  the  number  of  square  feet  oi 
radiation  to  be  sup^died.  For  houses  of  average  length, 
and  with  the  average  height  of  the  coils  six  feet  above 
the  bottom  of  the  heater, 

2  inch  pipe  wiU  supply  200  to    300  s(iiiaro  i\!ot  of  j;uUalioti. 

3  "  "  •'  000  to    SOO         "  "  " 
31/3      "               "          "          800  lo  1000         ■'                '•  " 

With  long  coils  and  light  pressure  these  figures  will 
need  to  be  slightly  reduced,  but  if  the  runs  are  sliort 
and  the  coils  elevated  they  may  be  increased  fifty  per 
cent. 

TO   ESTIMATE    KADIATIO]^". 

In  computing  the  amount  of  radiation  required  for  a 
house,  the  climate,  exposure,  construction  of  the  house, 
and  the  amount  of  exposed  wall  surface  should  be  con- 
sidered, as  Avell  as  the  temperature  to  be  maintained. 
When  the  walls  are  high  or  poorly  built,  or  if  the  roof 
is  not  tight,  allowance  should  be  made  for  it  by  adding 
to  the  glass  surface  one  foot,  for  every  five  feet  of 
exposed  wall,  and  a  corresponding  increase  for  the  poor 
glazing. 

In  most  parts  of  the  country  we  can  reckon  that 

1  squcare  foot  of  pipe  will  heat  to  40°  41/2  sijuare  feet  of  trlass. 
1        "  "  "  "         "       50'^  4  "  " 

1        a  .'  .<  '.         .'       55^  3»/2        "  "  " 

1        "  "  "  "  "       GO^  3  "  "  " 

1        "  "  "  "  "       65°  21/2        "  "  " 

I  «  »  X  ..  ..  7QO   2  "  "  " 


lOG 


GREENHOUSE    CONSTRUCTlONo 


While  a  slightly  higher  estimate  would  be  safe,  it  is 
economy  to  have  an  abundant  radiatiou,  especially  for 
tropical  houses. 

In  estimating  the  surface  of  wrought-iron  pipe, 

1  inch  pipe  is  leolcoiieil  nt  .344  siiuare  foot  i>er  linear  foot. 
11/4       •'  "  "        434 

11/2       ■'  "  "       .497 

2  "  "  "       .621        "  "  "  " 

PIPING   HIE    HOUSES. 

In  arranging  the  heating  pipes  we  can  place  them 
all  under  the  benches,  have  them  all  above  the  benches, 
or  the  flow  pipes  may  be  over  the  tables  and  the  returns 
underneath.  If  the  under-bench  system  is  nsed,  the 
arrangement  shown  in  Fig.  58  is  a  good  one.  When  the 
house  is  one  hnndred  and  fifty  feet  long  a  three-inch 


FIG.    58.        UNDER     BENCH     PIPING,    WIDE     EVEN     SPAN 
HOUSE. 

flow  pipe  will  be  needed  for  each  of  the  side  benches. 
(A  tAVO-inch  pipe  will  answer  for  a  house  one  hundred 
feet  long.)  When  the  coils  are  of  one  and  one-half  inch 
pipe  there  should  be  two,  each  seventy-five  feet  long, 
upon  each  side,  or  three  of  fifty  feet  each.     With  two  coils 


ri fiNa  THE  uouses. 


iU7 


the  mains  should  enter  the  house  close  to  the  bottom  of 
the  bench,  and  falling  at  the  rate  of  one  inch  in  twenty 
feet  shonld  pass  to  the  middle  of  tlie  house,  where  a  twu"- 
inch  branch  should  be  taken  off  at  the  side  by  means  of 
a  hot  water  T  ;  the  main  should  be  continued  by  niean.s 
of  a  two-inch  pipe  to  the  farther  end  of  the  house,  where 
it  should  connect  with  the  coil. 

In  a  house  one  hundred  feet  long  the  two-inch  feed 
pipe  should  be  run  in  the  same  way  as  the  above,  except 


PIG.    59.       UNDER     BENCH     PIPING     FOR     NARROW    EVEN 
SPAN   HOUSE. 

that  the  branches  should  l)e  of  one  and  one-half  inch 
pipe.  K  desired,  however,  the  coil  can  be  of  two-inch 
pipe,  in.  one  piece.  The  return  pipes  should  fall  towards 
the  heater  at  the  rate  of  one  inch  in  ten  or  twelve  feet. 
If  the  bench  is  too  low  to  admit  of  a  proper  fall  of  the 


108 


QKEENHOUSE  CONSTEUCTION. 


flow  pipe  from,  and  of  the  return  towards  the  heater,  the 
flow  may  be  given  a  gradual  rise  to  the  farther  end,  and 
thus  a  fall  can  be  secured  for  the  returns. 

Another  method  that  will  be  preferable  to  either  of 
the  above  when  the  bench  is  high  enough  to  give  a  fall, 
or  if  the  return  can  be  placed  below  the  level  of  the 
walk,  is  to  attach  the  feed  pipes  to  the  coils  at  the  end 
nearest  the   heater.     The    coils    can   then    be    given  a 


FIG.    60.      OVERHEAD   PIPING,    SHORT    SPAN"  TO   THE 
SOUTH  HOUSE. 

fall  from  the  heater,  and  the  returns  can  come  back 
underneath.  The  arrangement  of  the  pipes  in  a  narrow 
even  span  house  to  be  heated  to  forty-five  degrees  is 
shown  in  Fig.  59. 

OVERHEAD    PIPING. 

In  carnation  and  other  cool  houses  where  the  amount 
of  pipe  is  so  small  that  it  can  be  carried  upon  the  plate 
and  purlins,  and  particularly  in  *'  short-span  to  the  south" 
houses,  the  overhead  piping  will  perhaps  be  desirable. 
The  feed     ipe  can  be   carried   upon  the  ridge  posts 


FlPIXr,   THE    HOUSES. 


109 


(Fig.  GO),  and  the  returns  arranged  as  shown  in  the 
sketch,  or  the  (lows,  as  several  small  i)ipes,  may  bo  above, 
and  the  returns,  as  one  or  two  large  ones,  below. 

COMBINED    OVERHEAD   AXD    UNDER-BENCH    PIPING. 

For  most  commercial  establishments  the  above 
arrangement  will  be  preferable  to  having  all  the  pipes 
above,  or  all  under  the  benches.  One  method  is  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  Gl,  in  which  the  main  is  carried  near  the 
ridge,  and  the  returns  in  vertical  coils  upon  the  bench 
legs.     In  the  north-side  propagating  house,  all  of  the 


FIG.     Gl.         C05IBIXED     OVERHEAD     AND     UNDER -BENCH 
PIPING. 

pipes  are  under  the  bench.  For  an  even-span  house  one 
hundred  feet  long  and  twenty  feet  wide  to  be  carried  at 
sixty-five  degrees,  the  arrangement  illustrated  in  Fig.  G3 
will  give  good  results. 

With  a  good  fall,  one  and  one-half  inch  pipes  in  the 
coil  can  be  used  for  a  long  run,  but  it  will  generally  be 
better  to  make  two  coils  on  a  side,  each  fifty  feet  long. 
At  the  middle  of  the  house,  feed  pipes  (one  and  one-half 
inch)  can  be  taken  off  to  feed  the  first  coils,  and  the  main 
can  be  extended  as  a  two-inch  pipe  to  the  end  of  the 
house,  wliere  branch  pipes  can  be  connected  with  the 
other  coils.     Fig.  G3  illustrates  a  method  of  piping  a 


110 


GEEEXHOUSE    CONSTKUCTION. 


forcing  house  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  long  and  twenty 
feet  wide  tliat  is  to  be  kept  at  sixty-five  degrees.  The 
coils,  as  in  Fig.  62,  are  jjlaced  horizontally,  which  prob- 
ably makes  them  more  efficient  than  when  they  are 
arranged  vertically.  Figo  81  shows  a  method  of  arrang- 
ing the  heating  pipes  under  the  benches  that  can  be  used 
when  there  is  a  bench  across  the  farther  end  of  the 
house.  ■  As  the  main  is  somewhat  elevated,  it  has  some 
of  the  merits  of  the  combined  system.  It  will  be  noticed 
that  although  Figs.  52,  63,  and  81  are  designed  to  illus- 


PIG.    62.       COMBINED    PIPIISTG,    EVEN    SPAN"   HOUSE, 

100X20  feet;  65  degrees. 

trate  methods  of  piping,  they  also  show  various  ways 
of  building  the  walls,  ventilators,  posts  and  braces, 
benches,  etc. 

PIPING    NARROW    HOUSES. 

In  low  and  narrow  houses  the  same  methods  of 
piping  can  be  used,  making  proper  reductions  in  the 
number  of  the  pipes  in  the  coils,  and  in  the  size  of  the 
main.  Thus,  for  a  span-roof  house  twelve  feet  wide  and 
one  hundred  feet  long,  to  be  kept  at  fifty  degrees,  a  two- 
inch  pipe  at  tlie  ridge  will  feed  three  one  and  one-half 


PIPING    NARROW    HOUSES. 


Ill 


inch  returns  under  each  bench,  or,  if  the  under-])oncli 
system  is  to  be  nsed,  a  two-inch  flow  on  each  side  will 
feed  two  one  and  one-half  inch  returns.  Still  another 
method  would  be  to  use  two  one  and  one-half  inch  flow 
pipes  under  each  bench,  to  feed  the  same  number  of 
returns. 

The  heating  surface  will  be  most  efficient  if  it  is 
distributed  evenly  under  the  benches,  but  as  they  will 
then  occupy  considerable  space  that  could  be  occupied 
by  mushroom  beds  (Fig.  58)  or  for  other  purposes,  it  will 
generally  be  preferable  to  group  them  under  the  side 
benches. 

In  building  the  coils,  cast-iron  headers,  or,  better, 
manifolds  built  up  of  Ts  and  nipples,  can  be  used  at  one 


FIG.    63.       COMBINED    PIPING    FOR   FORCING    HOUSE, 

150X20  feet;  Gf)  degrees. 

end  of  straight  runs,  but  on  account  of  danger  from 
the  unequal  expansion  of  the  pipes,  a  mitre  should  be 
arranged  if  headers  are  to  be  used  at  both  ends.  The 
coils  can  be  carried  across  the  end  of  the  house  and  end 
in  headers  at  the  center,  to  which  branches  from  the 
feed  pipe  can  be  attached,  as  in  Fig.  G4. 

The  overhead  mains  can  be  fastened  to  the  posts  by 
means  of  cast-iron  brackets,  while  under  the  bench  they 


112 


GREENHOUSE    CONSTRUCTION". 


can  be  supported  by  pipe  liooks  upon  the  bench  legs. 
The  vertical  coils  can  be  fastened  in  the  same  way,  and 
tbiC  liorizontal  coils  can  be  supported  as  in  Fig.  63,  or 
upon  pieces  of  gas  pipe  suspended  from  the  bench  cross- 
bearers  by  iron  hooks,  as  seen  in  Figs.  58  and  63. 

VALVES   AND    EXPANSION    TANK. 

In  order  to  regulate  the  flow  of  the  water  through 
the  coils,  there  should  be  angle  or  gate  valves  upon  the 
returns,  or  upon  the  branch  feed  pijjes,  and  if  it  is  desir- 
able to  arrange  the  house  so  that  heat  can  be  shut  off  for 


FIG.    64.      ARRANGEMENT  OF  THE   COILS. 

a  portion  of  the  winter,  there  should  be  valves  on  both 
the  flow  and  return  mains  where  they  enter  the  house, 
with  a  draw-off  cock  so  that  the  water  can  be  removed. 

The  expansion  tank  should  be  raised  as  high  above 
the  mains  as  possible,  and  connected  with  it  (at  the 
highest  point,  in  case  the  piping  is  down  hill),  by  a  pipe 
from  one  to  two  inches  in  diameter,  according  to  the 
extent  of  the  system.  The  elevation  of  the  tank  in  no 
way  affects  the  circulation,  as  it  merely  raises  the  boiling 


nOT   -WATER   UXDKK-I'KESSURE.  113 

point  of  the  water.  The  tank  may  bo  of  galYnnizod  iron, 
without  a  cover,  with  the  expansion  pipe  connected  with 
the  bottom,  and  an  overflow  pipe  attaclied  about  two- 
thirds  the  Avay  up  the  side,  or  a  riveted  boiler-iron  closed 
tank  with  the  same  connections  and  a  Avatcr  gauge  on 
the  side. 

HOT    WATER    UXDER-PRESSURE. 

"When  the  down-hill  system  is  used,  many  florists 
combine  a  closed  expansion  tank  with  it.  The  tank 
should  be  of  boiler-iron  witli  top  and  bottom  securely 
riveted  on  ;  thus  far  it  does  not  differ  from  those  com- 
monly used  in  the  open  system.  The  only  difference  is 
that  there  is  no  vent  in  the  top  of  the  tank,  and  that 
there  is  a  safety  valve  on  the  overflow,  which,  as  in  the 
open  tank,  carries  the  waste  water  to  a  drain. 

The  closed  tank  has  the  same  effect  as  does  the 
elevated  one,  and  merely  raises  the  point  to  which  the 
water  can  be  heated  without  forming  steam.  One 
advantage  of  this  is  that,  wlien  water  is  carried  at  320°, 
much  less  heating  pipe  is  required  than  wlien  it  is  only 
160°,  but  a  serious  objection  is  that  it  now  has  one  of 
the  faults  of  steam  as,  at  this  temperature,  more  heat 
will  be  carried  up  the  chimney  with  tlie  products  of 
combustion,  than  when  the  water  is  ISO'',  It  is  an  ex- 
cellent plan  to  have  the  house  supplied  with  sufficient 
radiating  surface  to  maintain  the  required  tcmperat^^re 
in  the  average  winter  weather  with  an  open  tank,  but  to 
have  the  system  provided  with  a  safety-valve,  which 
could  be  thrown  on  when  it  became  necessary,  in  order 
to  keep  up  the  temperature  when  the  thermometer  goes 
down  below  zero. 

Unless  the  dowii-liiirsystom,  with  the  tank  at  tlie 
highest  point,  is  used,  air  vents  should  bo  provided, 
wherever  the  pipe  takes  an  upward  turn,  at  the  higliest 
points.     Air  cocks  can  be  used,  or  quarter-inch  gas  pipes 


114  GREENHOUSE    CONSTEUCTIOJSI. 

carried  above  the  level  of  the  exj^ansion  pipe  will  answer, 
and  are  preferable  if  the  tank  is  not  much  elevated. 

CHANGES   OF   DIRECTION   AND    LEVEL. 

If  for  any  reason  it  becomes  necessary  to  change  the 
direction  or  the  level  of  the  pipes,  it  shonld  be  the  least 
amonnt  possible,  and,  in  doing  it,  45°  ells,  reducing 
tees,  etc,  should  be  used.  If  necessary,  the  main  pipes 
can  be  changed  from  their  course  and  run  over  or  under 
an  obstruction,  and  they  can  even  be  carried  below  the 
level  of  the  heater,  but  it  should  not  be  done  unless 
there  is  an  abundant  pressure.  In  all  downward  changes 
of  level,  the  force  required  to  bring  the  water  back  to  its 
original  level  will  be  in  projjortion  to  the  cooling  that 
takes  place  between  the  fall  and  rise.  Every  change  in 
direction  increases  the  friction  and  decreases  the  flow. 

CONNECTING   THE    DIFFERENT   SYSTEMS. 

If  there  is  a  range  of  houses  to  be  connected  with 
one  system,  the  arrangements  will  need  to  be  such  as 
will  suit  the  conditions.  If,  as  is  very  convenient,  the 
houses  have  a  common  head  house,  the  heater  can  be 
situated  in  the  center,  and  the  feed  mains  can  be  carried 
along  the  wall  of  the  head  house,  just  above  the  doors 
that  open  into  the  greenhouses,  and  the  branches  can 
be  taken  off  from  this.  The  returns  can  be  connected 
in  much  the  same  way,  but  the  return  main  will  be  below 
the  level  of  the  coils. 

FOUR-INCH   HEATING    PIPES. 

Although  an  expensive  method  of  pilling  and  heat- 
ing greenhouses,  many  florists  prefer  to  use  four-inch 
pipes.  The  pipes  must  all  be  under  the  benches,  upon 
substantial  brick  piers.  If  air  vents  are  provided  at  fre- 
quent intervals  the  pipes  may  be  level ;  otherwise  a  slight 
down-hill  arrangement  Avill  be  preferable.  The  joints 
should  be  packed  firmly  with  oakum  or  tarred  rope,  with 


HOT   WATER    HEATKKS. 


115 


iron  cement  or  Portland  cement  between  the  layers,  and 
at  the  outer  edge  of  the  joint.  If  the  runs  arc  long  tlio 
pipes  should  rest  on  gas-pipe  rollers,  that  expansi<m  and 
contraction  may  not  break  the  joints. 

PIPING    12s"   GEi^ERAL. 

The  same  general  rules  as  to  the  arrangement  of  the 
pipes  apply  to  all  kinds  of  houses,  and  will  only  need  to 
be  slightly  modified  to  suit  the  various  conditions.  For 
large  conservatories,  particularly  if  the  center  of  the 
house  is  filled  with  plants  growing  in  the  ground,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  have  all  of  the  pipes  arranged  in  stacks 
along  the  sides,  or,  if  desired,  cast-iron  radiators  can  bo 
used. 


CnAPTER  XVIII. 


HOT   WATER   HEATERS. 

In  the  illustrations  of  heaters  j^resented,  the  selec- 
tion was  made  with  the  idea  of  showing  the  construction 
of  different  types. rather  than  of  advocating  the  use  of 

any  particular  heat- 
er. While  we  can 
recommend  most  of 
these  from  our  own 
experience,  t  here 
are  other  heaters 
that  may  be  fully  as 
effective. 

The     Carmody 
heater  (Fig.  G5)  is 
selected  as  the  type 
FIG.  65.     CARMODY  HEATER.       ^f  ^i^^  vertical  sec- 
tional heaters.     They  are  of  a  very  durable  construction 
and,   like   others   of    the   class,    possess   the   important 


116 


GREENHOUSE    COISrSTEUCTION". 


adyautage  of  iiermitting  the  addition  of  other  sections, 
should  it  at  any  time  become  necessary.     The  water  cir- 


FIG.    66.      HITCHIN"GS'  HEATER. 

dilation,  for  the  most  part,  is  vertical,  and  the  flues  are 
arranged  to  give  an  effective  heating  surface. 


1  TG.    67.       M  r  VTHERED    CONIC  VL   HEATER. 

In  some  respects  similar  to  the  Carmody,  hut  differ- 
ing in  being  non-sectional,  are  such  well-known  heaters 


HOT   WATER   UEATEllS. 


117 


as  the  Hitchings,  Smith,  and  Weathered.  They  dilfur 
priucipally  in  the  ari-angeiueiit  of  their  iire  surfaees.  lu 
the  Hitehings'  corrugated  heater,  of  which  a  longimd- 
inal  section  is  shown  in  Fig.  6G,  the  lire  surface  is 
increased  by  means  of  rounded  corrugatious,  while,  in 
the  Smith,  the  corrugations  are  replaced  by  quite  deep 
square  cells. 

Few  heaters,  with  equal  grate  areas,  will  surpass 
those  of  this  class  in  the  amount  of  heat  they  will  fur- 
nish, or  in  the  economy  of  their  coal  consumption.  For 
cool  houses,  or  when  carrying 
about  two-thirds  of  their  full 
radiation,  they  give  very  satis- 
factory results.  While  their 
fire  surface  is  very  effectively 
arranged,  it  is  rather  small  for 
the  grate  area,  and,  in  case 
the  heaters  are  working  up  to 
their  full  cajiacity,  in  very 
cold  weather,  there  will  be  a 
considerable  loss  of  heat 
through  the  smoke  flue.  With 
these  heaters,  as  with  others, 
it  is  economy  to  select  one  jJ| 
that  is  a  size  larger  than  would 
be  really  necessary.  For  small  "^ 
greenhouses  the-  Weathered 
Conical  Heater  (Fig.  GT)  or  ^i^-  ^^'  ^pexce  heater. 
others  of  similar  construction  will  be  found  quite  jww- 
erful  and  eflBcient. 

In  Fig.  68  we  present  the  Spence  as  showing  the 
general  form  of  the  horizontal  sectional  heaters.  The 
fire-j^ot  is  surrounded  with  a  Avater  jacket  so  that  a  fire- 
brick lining  is  not  ie(|uired.  The  sections  are  arranged 
parallel,  one  above  the  other,  over  the  fire-pot.  The 
construction  of  the  flues  is  such  as  brings  the  products 


118 


GKEENHOUSE    CONSTRUCTIOIS^. 


of  combustion  repeatedly  in  contact  with  the  heating 
surface,  and  if  this  is  not  sufficient  to  absorb  all  of  the 
heat,  the  difficulty  can  be  corrected  by  the  addition  of 
more  sections.  The  first,  third,  and  fifth  sections  are 
shown  in  Fig.  69,  and  the  second  and  fourth  in  Fig  70. 
The  water  is  spread  out  in  a  thin  sheet  in  the  sections 
and  cannot  enter  the  feed  pipes  nntil  it  has  made  a  com- 
j)lete  circuit  of  one  section.  By  the  arrangement  of  the 
water  column  in  the.rear,  the  water  having  passed  through 
one  section,  is  j^revented  from  entering  another.  The 
points  claimed  for  this  heater  are,  economy  of  fuel,  per- 
fect and  rapid  circulation,  readiness  of  cleaning,  few  and 
tight  joints,  and,  in  case  of  leakage  or  breaks,  the  readi- 


FIG.  69.       SPEIsrCE   HEATER. 

(1st,  3d  and  5th  Sections.) 


FIG.   70.       SPENCE   HEATER. 

(2d  and  4:tii  Sections.) 


ncss  with  which  repairs  can  bo  made.  The  Gurney, 
(No.  300  Series)  and  the  Palace  King  have  much  the 
same  construction,  and  are,  yery  likely,  fully  as  efficient. 
The  Furman  heaters  may  be  taken  as  the  type  of  the 
drop  tube  patterns.  They  are  used  either  for  steam  or 
hot  water,  the  small  sizes  generally  being  portable  (Fig. 
71),  and  the  large  ones  brick-set  (Fig.  72).  The  Fur- 
man  hot-water  heater  is  constructed  on  principles  almost 
exactly  the  reverse  of  those  found  in  the  Spence.  It  is 
not  sectional  in  the  small  sizes,  and  yet,  as  the  parts  are 
screwed  together,  they  can  be  taken  apart  if  any  of  the 
tubes  are  broken.     The  cast-iron  screw  joints  will  prob- 


HOT  "WATER  HEATEKS. 


119 


ably  never  leak.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  heating  sur- 
face consists  of  oval  drop  tubes,  with  a  diaphragm  in  the 
center,  so  arranged  that  the  water  passes  down  on  one 
side  and  up  the  other.  As  previously  stated,  the  vertical 
circulation,  as  secured  in  the  Furman,  is  the  correct  one, 
as  there  is  less  friction  than  in  horizontal  tubes  or  sec- 
tions. It  gives  a  very  rapid  circulation,  which  is  of 
importance  in  taking  up  the  heat  and,  also,  in  giving  it 
off  in  the  coils.  A  happy  illustration  of  the  effect  of  a 
rapid  circulation  upon  the  amount  of  heat  taken  up  by 
the  water,  is  the  wind  blow- 
ing over  a  muddy  road,  the 
faster  it  moves,  the  more 
water  it  takes  up.  The 
faster  the  Avater  travels  past 
the  fire,  the  more  heat  will 
it  absorb,  and  the  less  will 
pass  up  the  smoke  pipe. 

In  the  Eurmau,  the  at- 
tempt is  made  to  secure  the 
direct  action  of  the  fire  upon 
the  tubes,  by  means  of  lat- 
eral  draft    between   them ; 
this  also   tends    to   secure 
perfect  combustion  to  the   ^^^-    ^^*      it-ii^AX  POitT- 
very  edge  of  the   fire-pot.      ^^le  heater  {Steam). 
From  their  shape  and  arrangement,  very  little  cleaning 
of  the  flues  is  necessary. 

Although  constructed  upon  a  general  plan  exactly 
opposite  that  of  the  Spencc,  from  our  trial  of  the  two 
heaters  here,  it  is  not  possible  to  decide  which  is  the 
correct  one ;  if  anything,  however,  the  SjDcnce  is  more 
economical  of  fuel. 

Where  the  size  of  the  plant  will  warrant,  it  is  bottel 
to  have  two  heaters  in  a  battery,  than  one  very  large  one, 
and  where  two  large  heaters  will  do  the  work  on  a  2) inch, 


120 


GliEEXHOUSE    COisSTIiUCTIOif, 


it  is  desirable  to  have  a  third  one  to  fall  back  on  in  severe 
weather,  or  in  case  of  an  accident  to  one  of  the  others. 
If  a  single  heater  large  enough  to  do  the  work  in  the 
most  severe  weather  is  used,  it  will  be  twice  as  large  as 
will  be  required  in  the  mild  weather  of  Sirring  and  Fall, 
but,  by  having  two  heaters  in  a  battery,  one  or  both  can 
be  used  as  may  be  necessary. 

For  use  in  small  conservatories,  there  are  many 
forms  of  portable  hot  water  heaters,  of  which  that  made 
by  Ilitchings  &  Co.,  shown  in  Fig.  73,  may  be  taken  as 
a  sample.  Most  of  them  have  coal  magazines,  and  run 
Tor  eight  or  ten  hours  Avithout  attention.     From  the 


y 


FIG.    72.      FURMAN   BRICK-SET  HEATER   {Steam). 

simj)licity  of  the  hot  water  apparatus  as  first  used,  it  Avill 
be  seen  that  good  results  can  be  obtained  from  almost 
any  kind  of  a  heater  that  jn'ovides  for  a  proper  connec- 
tion. A  simj^le  can  of  copper,  zinc,  or  galvanized  iron, 
resting  over  an  oil  stove,  Avill  provide  heat  for  a  small 
conservatory ;  but,  if  some  arrangement  can  be  made  for 
increasing  the  heating  surface,  better  results  will  be 
obtained. 

THE   SIZE   OF   HEATER   TO    USE. 

Having  determined  upon  the  kind  of  heater  to  use, 
the  size  to  obtain  is  of  considerable  importance.     All 


THE    SIZE   OF   nEATEll   TO    USE. 


121 


greenhouse  heaters  are  rated  by  the  manufacturers  as 
equal  to  supplying  a  certain  numhor  of  pquure  feet  of 
radiation.  Although  most  of  them  will  do  what  is 
claimed  for  them  at  a  pinch,  it  Avill  be  at  the  expense  of 
an  excessive  amount  of  fuel  and  labor.  The  most  eco- 
nomical results  Avitli  hot  water  can  only  be  obtained  with 
a  thin,  slow  fire  in  a  large  fire  box,  and  as  a  rule  it  Avill 
be  well  to  deduct  at  least 
twenty-five  per  cent,  from 
the  manufacturers'  rating 
in  estimating  the  capac- 
ity of  a  heater. 

The  comparative  area 
of  grate  and  fire  surface 
in  heaters  varies  with  their 
arrangement  to  such  an 
extent  that,  provided  it  is 
ample  to  absorb  the  heat 
produced  by  the  combus- 
tion, the  latter  may  be  left 
out  of  the  question  for  the 
present.  Basing  the  re- 
quired grate  area  upon  the  _^^S 
number  of  square  feet  of  ^^B 
radiating  surface,  it  has 
been  stated  that  for  econ- 
omy the  ratio  of  one  to  '  ^  ^0^=^^cy-Da. 
two  hundred  should  not  fig.  73.  hitchixgs'  base 
be  exceeded.'  With  large  burking  heater. 
heaters  this  should  suffice,  provided  the  radiation  itself 
was  ample,  but  in  small  establishments,  with  less  than 
one  thousand  feet  of  radiating  surface,  the  proportion  of 
one  square  foot  of  grate  surface  to  one  hundred  and  fifty 
square  feet  of  radiating  surface  will  be  none  too  much  for 
the  economical  consumption  of  fuch  lu  establislwnents 
where  cheap  fuel  is  used  and  a  night  fireman  employed, 


122  GKEENHOUSE    CONSTRUCTION, 

one  square  foot  of  grate  surface  will  burn  enough  fuel, 
with  a  good  draft,  to  supply  two  hundred  and  fifty 
square  feet  of  radiation. 

Of  course,  the  ratio  of  radiating  and  glass  surface 
must  be  based,  in  addition  to  the  temperature  to  be 
maintained,  upon  the  climate,  the  exposure,  the  con- 
struction of  the  house,  etc.,  but,  as  a  rule,  the  average 
temperature  in  a  greenhouse  may  be  taken  as  fifty  de- 
grees, and  one  foot  of  radiating  surface  will  heat  about 
four  square  feet  of  glass.  For  an  establishment  then  of 
2,400  square  feet  of  glass,  600  square  feet  of  radiating 
surface  will  be  necessary,  and  a  heater  with  a  grate  con- 
taining four  square  feet  will  be  required.  If  it  contains 
8,000  square  feet  of  glass,  2,000  square  feet  of  radiation 
and  ten  square  feet  of  grate  surface  will  be  necessary, 
and  for  16,000  square  feet  of  glass  the  radiation  and 
grate  surfaces  will  be  respectively  4,000  and  sixteen 
square  feet.  In  the  first  two  cases  the  fires  can  be  left  at 
night  Avithout  attention  for  eight  hours  in  zero  weather, 
but  Avould  require  stoking  once  in  three  or  four  hours 
when  the  grate  surface  is  as  small  as  given  in  the  last 
example. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

STEAM    HEATING. 

With  the  wonderful  growth  of  commercial  floral 
establishments  during  the  past  ten  years,  a  need  arose 
for  something  more  efScient  and  applicable  to  larger 
houses  than  the  old-fashioned  flue,  or  the  hot  water  sys- 
tem with  four-inch  pipes,  and  it  was  found  iu  the  modern 
steam  greenhouse-heating  plants.  In  a  general  way,  the 
same  rules  and  method  of  piping  would  answer  here  as 
were  given  for  hot  water. 

In  steam  heating  we  have  the  choice  of  two  methods, 
high  or  low  pressure.  In  the  first  it  is  preferable  to  use 
wrought-iron  boilers  rather  than  the  average  one  of  cast- 
iron,  although  some  cast-iron  tubular  boilers  are  claimed 
by  the  inventors  to  withstand  higher  pressures  tlian 
those  of  wrought-iron.  This  method  of  heating  is  par- 
ticularly api^licable  in  large  plants  with  more  than 
12,000  square  feet  of  glass,  where  a  regular  niglit  fire- 
man can  be  employed.  The  principal  arguments  in  its 
favor  are  that  less  radiating  surface  is  required  than  with 
low  pressure  steajii  or  with  water,  and  that  steam  can  be 
carried  to  considerable  distances,  thus  centralizing  tlie 
boilers,  and  enabling  the  most  extensive  ranges  of  house 
to  be  heated  from  one  boiler-room.  For  small  plants 
the  low  pressure  system,  carrying  a  maximum  of  five 
pounds  pressure,  and  generally  not  over  two  pounds,  is 
preferable. 

STEAM    BOILERS   AK"D  THEIR   LOCATION. 

Some  of  the  horizontal  tubular  boilers  are  generally 
used  and  give  general  satisfaction.     For  low  pressure 

123 


124  GREENHOUSE     COKSTEUCTION". 

there  are  dozens  of  cast-iron  boilers;  each  of  -which  has 
points  that,  if  we  can  believe  the  inventors,  makes  his 
the  best;  really,  however,  the  dili'erence  in  their  real 
efficiency  is  very  slight.  For  small  houses  the  locomo- 
tive boiler  seems  to  be  a  cheap  and  economical  heater. 
They  are  also  used  with  success  for  hot  water.  As  in 
the  hot  water  heaters,  the  requirements  for  a  good  steam 
boiler  are  ample  grate  surface,  good  draft,  and  a  fire 
surface  at  right  angles  to  the  draft,  with  the  flues  so 
arranged  as  to  absorb  the  greatest  possible  amount  of 
heat. 

In  locating  the  boiler,  pains  should  be  taken  to  have 
it  low  enough  so  that  the  water  level  will  be  at  least  two 
feet  below  the  lowest  heating  pipe,  but  if  this  is  not  pos- 
sible without  sinking  the  boiler  in  dark,  poorly  drained 
pits,  steam  traps  can  be  used,  particularly  with  high 
pressure,  that  will  remove  the  water  from  the  return, 
and  lift  it  to  the  water  level  of  the  boiler  ;  with  low 
pressure  they  work  more  slowly  and  are  less  satisfactory. 

ARRANGEMENT    OF   THE    STEAM    PIPES. 

The  method  given  for  the  arrangement  of  the  hot 
water  pipes  can  be  followed  with  few  changes  for  steam, 
whether  high  or  low  pressure.  The  main  for  each  house 
should  be  carried  along  under  the  ridge  to  the  farther 
end,  running  on  a  slight  decline,  where  it  should  be 
broken  up  to  supply  the  coils.  If  constructed  with 
manifolds,  a  manifold  valve  should  be  used,  or,  if  in  sep- 
arate lines,  all  but  one  pipe  on  each  side  should  be 
arranged  so  that  it  can  be  shut  off  in  mild  weather.  In 
making  the  coils,  and  in  fact  all  connections,  great  care 
should  be  taken  to  allow  for  expansion. 

For  short  coils,  one-inch  pipe  may  be  used,  but  if  of 
considerable  length,  one  and  one-fourth  inch  pipe  is  pre- 
ferred by  most  florists.  The  slope  of  the  coils  should  be 
towards  the  boiler,  when  the  flow  is  carried  overhead,  in 


A3I0UXT   OF   PIP>:    FOR    STEAM.  125 

order  to  return  the  condensed  water.  At  the  end  of  the 
house  the  returns  sliould  be  collected  into  one  pipe,  which 
should  enter  the  boiler  below  the  water  level. 

There  should  be  an  automatic  air  valve  on  each  of 
the  coils  at  the  lower  end,  and  on  the  return,  near  the 
boiler,  it  is  well  to  have  both  a  valve  and  a  check  valve. 

As  recommended  for  hot  water,  it  is  Avell  to  have  the 
pipes  somewhat  distributed,  and  if,  in  addition  to  the 
overhead  mains,  one  return  pipe  is  carried  along  on  the 
wall  plate,  it  will  tend  to  warm  the  cold  air  that  enters 
through  the  ventilators,  or  cracks  in  the  glass,  before  it 
comes  in  contact  with  the  plants.  AVith  plants  like 
cucumbers  and  roses,  that  are  susceptible  to  cold  drafts, 
this  will  be  found  a  decided  advantage. 

AMOUXT    OF    PIPE   FOR   STEAM. 

The  amount  of  pipe,  both  for  mains  and  coils,  will 
be  much  less  than  when  hot  water  is  used.  For  the 
main  it  can  be  reckoned  that  a 

IVb  inch  pipe  wiU  supply  200  square  feet  of  radiation. 

2  "  "  "  400       " 
21/3      »          "              "                800        " 

3  "  "  "  1,600        "  "  " 

4  "  "  "  3,200        "  "  " 

The  surface  of  the  steam  pipes  is  from  thirty  to  fifty 
per  cent,  warmer  than  that  of  hot  Avater  pipes,  and  a 
corresponding  decrease  of  the  necessary  radiating  surface 
can  be  made.  For  low  joressure  steam,  in  addition  to  the 
mains,  a  house  will  require  for  each  1,000  square  feet  of 
glass,  to  warm  it  to 

45°  to  50^,  140  square  feet,  or  300  linear  feet,  IVi  inch  pipe. 
50°  to  60°,  175        "  "        "   400        '•  "         "        "  " 

C0°  to  70°,  225        "  "        "  500 

With  high  pressure,  a  considerable  reduction  can  be 
made  from  the  above. 

In  figuring  the  capacity  of  a  boiler,  about  fifteen 
feet  of  heating  (fire)  surface  should  be  reckoned  as  one 


126  GREENHOUSE    CONSTRUCTION. 

horse  power,  and  in  estimating  the  radiation  that  it  will 
supply,  from  iifty  to  ninety  square  feet  of  radiation  per 
horse  power,  according  to  the  pressure,  may  be  relied 
upon  "with  a  good  boiler.  If  we  consider  that  for  a  tem- 
perature of  fifty  degrees,  Avhich  may  be  taken  as  about 
an  average,  one  square  foot  of  radiating  surface  will  take 
care  of  six  square  feet  of  glass,  one  horse  power  will  be 
sufficient  for  300  to  540  square  feet  of  glass.  As  in  the 
case  with  hot  water  heaters,  a  large  steam  boiler  will 
handle  more  glass  to  a  squai'e  foot  of  grate  than  a 
small  one. 

The  size  of  grate  for  a  given  glass  area  will  also  de- 
pend upon  the  draft  of  the  chimney,  the  skill  of  the 
fireman  and  the  method  of  stoking  used.  With  a  poor 
draft  a  much  smaller  amount  of  coal  can  be  burned,  per 
square  foot  of  grate,  than  when  the  draft  is  strong,  and 
a  grate  area  considerably  larger  than  in  the  latter  case 
will  be  required  ;  the  same  is  true  of  a  dirty  fire  as  com- 
pared with  a  clean  one.  For  establishments  with  less 
than  10,000  to  12,000  square  feet  of  glass,  a  night  fire- 
man can  hardly  be  afforded,  and  a  large  grate  should  be 
used  upon  which  a  slow  fire  can  be  burned  that  will  last 
from  six  to  ten  hours.  For  this  purpose  the  grate  should 
have  an  area  of  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  or  even  twenty 
feet,  according  to  the  climate  and  other  modifying  con- 
ditions. On  the  other  hand,  when  a  strong  draft  can  be 
secured,  and  in  large  establishments,  Avhere  a  night  fire- 
man is  employed,  one  square  foot  of  grate  can  readily 
handle  one  thousand  square  feet  of  glass.  In  other 
words,  a  steam  boiler  with  twelve  square  feet  of  grate 
can  be  made  to  heat  with  economy  12,000  square  feet  of 
glass.  Under  favorable  conditions,  eight  square  feet  of 
grate  will  heat  a  house  containing  the  above  amount  of 
glass  to  fifty  degrees. 

The  matter  is  so  important  that  it  is  well  to  again 
mention  the  advisability  of  jiutting  in  a  boiler  with  a 


ANOTHER    METHOD    OF    PIl'lNG. 


127 


capacity  twcnty-fivo  i)Gr  cent  larger  iluui  is  required 
to  do  tlie  work,  and  id'  arranging  for  ample  radiating 
surface. 

The  only  other  matter  of  real  importance  in  arrang- 
ing a  system  is  to  have  the  pipes  with  su(!h  a  fall  (one 
inch  in  twenty  feet  will  answer)  that  the  water  of 
condensation  can  readily  drain  off.  This  can  best  be 
secured,  if  there  is  a  gradual  descent  in  the  pipes  from 


FIG.    74.       T.XTERTOR    OF    STEAM-HEATED   HOUSE. 

the  point  where  tlie  main  enters  the  house  to  where  the 
return  leaves.  If  it  becomes  necessary  to  change  the 
direction  of  the  slope,  a  one-inch  drip  pipe  should  be 
connected  with  the  underside  of  the  main,  at  the  point 
where  the  direction  of  the  pipe  changes,  and  joined  to 
the  returns. 

ANOTHER   METHOD    OF    riPING. 

Although  the  overhead  main  will  generally  give  best 
satisfaction,  particularly  in  long  houses,  it  is  sometimes 


128  GREEN-HOUSE    CONSTRUCTION. 

preferred  to  have  them  all  under  the  bench.  The  coil 
can  commence  at  the  end  of  the  house  nearest  the  boiler, 
and  with  a  gradual  fall  to  the  other  end,  from  which 
point  the  return  can  descend  to  the  heater.  These  coils 
can  be  underneath  the  side  benches  or  in  the  walk,  and, 
if  desired,  in  wide  houses  under  the  center  bench,  also. 
This  method  of  distributing  the  pipes  will  be  particu- 
larly desirable  when  the  plants  are  placed  out  on  the 
benches. 

In  short  houses  the  coils  can  run  entirely  around  the 
house,  although  the  short  runs  will  be  jireferable.  With 
low  pressure  it  is  not  advisable  to  have  coils  more  than 
two  hundred  feet  in  length.  Even  for  houses  of  this 
length,  it  will  be  very  convenient  to  have  the  different 
houses  in  the  range  connected  in  the  center  by  a  cross 
gallery,  in  which  the  boilers  may  be  placed,  and  through 
which  the  mains  ,and  returns  can  be  run  and  connected 
with  coils  which  will  be  half  as  long  as  the  house.  Fig. 
74  shows  one  method  of  piping  a  small  house  for  steam, 
the  furnace-room  being  at  the  farther  end  of  the  house. 

Various  methods  of  arranging  steam  pijaes  are  shown 
in  Figs.  58-62.  As  a  rule,  a  two-inch  steam  main 
can  be  used  instead  of  a  three-inch  hot  water  main,  and 
a  one-inch  steam  pipe  will  be  equivalent  to  an  inch  and 
one-half  hot  water  pipe  in  the  coils  for  low  pressure,  and 
a  two-inch'pipe  if  the  steam  is  under  high  pressure. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

COMPARATIVE    MKRITS    OV    STKAM    AND   HOT    WATER. 

The  following  arc  among  the  claims  made  l)y  advo- 
cates of  steam  for  their  favorite  heating  system:  (1)  A 
lovrer  first  cost ;  ('-i)  ability  to  maintain  a  steady  temper- 
atnre ;  (3)  readiness  with  which  the  temperature  can  be 
raised  or  lowered  if  desired  ;  (4)  economy  of  coal  con- 
sumption ;  (5)  ease  with  which  repairs  can  be  made. 

The  hot  water  men  admit  that  these  claims  hold  to 
a  large  extent  against  hot  water  in  four-inch  pipes,  but 
they  contend  that  the  men  who  make  these  claims  have 
made  no  comparison  Avith  modern  well-arranged  liot 
water  plants,  and  that,  under  proper  conditions,  the  lat- 
ter system  is  preferable.  Those  who  favor  hot  water 
claim  for  that  method  that  at  the  most  only  the  first 
claim  of  the  steam  men  will  stand,  and  that  on  the 
other  points,  hot  water  can  make  as  good,  if  not  better 
showing. 

With  regard  to  tlie  first  cost,  as  stated  before,  the 
amount  of  radiation  required  for  hot  water  with  an  open 
tank  is  about  forty  per  cent,  more  than  with  steam, 
wdiich  will  make  the  cost  of  tlie  plant  about  twenty  per 
cent,  more  than  the  cost  of  a  steam  plant.  Under  pres- 
sure, however,  the  cost  will  be  little  if  any  more,  but  we 
shall  lose  in  economy  of  fuel,  as  compared  with  the  open 
tank  system,  although  it  retains  all  of  the  other  advan- 
tages claimed  for  hot  water.  With  a  fireman  giving 
constant  attention  to  the  boilers,  a  steady  pressure  can 
be  maintained,  and  of  course  the  pipes  being  all  of  tlio 
time  at  the  same  temperature,  there  need  be  but  little 
9  129 


130  GEEENHOUSE    CONSTEUCTION. 

variation  in  the  house,  provided  the  pressure  is  raised  or 
lowered,  or  the  valves  are  used  to  regulate  the  amount  of 
radiation,  according  to  the  outside  temperature. 

In  small  plants,  where  regular  firemen  are  not  em- 
ployed both  for  night  and  day,  the  pressure  will  vary  to 
a  greater  or  less  extent.  Ill  well-arranged  plants,  boilers 
ca5j)e  left  in  severe  weather  for  six  or  eight  honrs,  and 
pressure  will  be  maintained,  provided  everything  is  all 
right ;  but  if  for  any  reason  the  water  in  the  boiler  drops 
below  212°,  the  steam  pipes  will  cool,  and  serious  harm 
may  result.  With  hot  water,  circulation  will  go  on  so 
long  as  there  is  fire  in  the  heater,  and  the  water  in  the 
pipes  will  give  off  heat  even  after  that,  until  they  cool  to 
the  temperature  of  the  house.  It  can  then  be  claimed 
for  hot  water,  and  no  one  can  deny  it,  that  in  small 
plants,  liot  water  is  safer  than  steam  to  use,  and  can  be 
left  for  a  longer  time  tvitJiout  attention. 

_It^is  also  urged  in  favor  of  steam,  that  in  long  runs 
the  hot  water  becomes  cooled,  and  that  the  temperature 
at  the  lower  end  of  the  coils  will  be  less  than  at  the 
other.  In  a  short  house  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet 
or  less,  this  can  be  counteracted  by  using  the  overhead 
main  and  underbench  returns,  and  even  in  long  houses 
the  difference,  with  this  method  of  piping,  should  not 
exceed  five  degrees  in  a  house  two  hundred  feet  long. 
If  the  continuous  coils  of  one  and  one-half  or  two-inch 
pipe  running  through  the  house  and  back  are  used, 
which  may  be  done  where  a  fall  of  one  inch  in  ten  feet 
can  be  secured,  there  may  be  even  less  difference  than  is 
found  in  steam  pipes. 

There  is,  then,  some  ground  for  the  claim  of  hot 
water  men  that,  even  compared  with  large  plants  in 
which  night  firemen  are  employed,  the  temperature  at  the 
opposite  ends  of  the  houses  will  he  as  even  as  with  steam, 
and  that  the  hot  water  system  properly  arranged  ivill 
maintain  for  eight  or  ten  hours  a  temperature  as  even  as 
will  be  secured  from,  steam  by  the  average  fireman. 


EXPERIMENTAL  TESTS.  131 

The  claim  that  steam  can  bo  ii.sed  to  better  advan- 
tage when  it  is  desired  to  raise  or  lower  tiie  temperature 
of  the  house,  only  applied  against  water  in  large  pii)es. 
If  desired,  tbe  entire  circulation  in  the  hot  water  coils 
can  be  shut  off,  and  tlie  amount  of  heat  in  the  water  in 
the  pipes  if  given  off  at  once  would  not  raise  the  temper- 
atui-e  of  the  house  a  single  degree,  and  distributed  over 
an  hour  or  so,  would  not  be  noticed.  AVith  four-inch 
pipes  containing  ten  times  tbe  quantity  of  water,  and, 
especially  as  valves  were  not  always  provided  for  shut- 
ting off  the  circulation,  the  heat  given  off  was  sufficient 
to  necessitate  the  early  opening  of  the  ventilators  on 
bright  mornings  and  a  corresponding  injury  fi-om  cold 
drafts  upon  the  plants  was  caused.  With  small  pipes, 
starting  with  cold  water  or  with  a  moderately  low  fire,  a 
normal  temperature  of  the  pipes  can  be  secured  as 
quickly  as  with  steam.  When  the  question  of  economy 
of  fuel  is  considered,  the  general  opinion  of  those  who 
have  carefully  tested  steam  against  the  modern  hot  water 
system,  is  that  the  latter  is  about  twenty-five  per  cent, 
cheaper. 

EXPERIMENTAL  TESTS. 

There  are  on  record  a  large  number  of  so-called 
tests  of  the  economy  of  steam  and  hot  water,  but  in 
nearly  every  case  the  hot  water  was  in  four-inch  pipes. 
The  only  experimental  tests  that  have  come  to  the 
notice  of  the  writer,  where  the  houses  and  plants  were 
of  similar  construction,  and  the  tests  were  carried  on  at 
the  same  time,  was  the  one  by  Prof.  Maynard,  at  the 
Massachusetts  Experiment  Station  at  Amherst,  and  those 
of  the  author  at  the  Michigan  Experiment  Station.  In 
each  case  piping  was  arranged  in  both  houses  with  over- 
head mains  and  underbench  coils,  and  although  an 
attempt  was  made  to  have  each  plant  as  perfect  as  possi- 
ble, the  conditions  for  either  system  were  no  more  favor- 


132 


GREEXHOUSE    CONSTRUCTIOif. 


able  than  could  be  secured  in  any  forcing  honse.  The 
houses  at  Amherst  were  seveuty-five  by  eighteen  feet, 
and  those  at  Lansing  twenty  by  fifty  feet  each. 

The  tests  were  continued  in  each  place  for  two  years 
with  the  following  results  : 


AVERARE   TEXPERATrKE. 

Coal  Cox sum ED. 

Water  House.    Steam  House. 

Water  House. 

Steam  House. 

Amherst, 
Average. 

52.S«y                  50.80= 
5t.ST^                  bS.Oi^ 
53.S4-"                  ol.yi-'' 

69.M  lbs. 
W.53    " 

91  .-IS  lbs. 
114.53    " 
103.01    " 

Or  almost  exactly  twenry-five  per  cent,  more  fuel  was 
required  for  steam  than  with  water,  although  the  steam 
houses  averaged  about  two  degrees  cooler. 

In  both  places  the  hot  water  house  was  more  ex- 
posed to  the  cold  winds  than  the  steam  house,  and,  at 
Lansing,  wliere  the  results  were  less  favorable  for  water 
than  at  Amherst,  although  the  houses  were  piped  for 
maintaining  a  temperature  of  forty-five  to  fifty  degrees, 
they  were  kept  at  a  temperature  of  fifty-five  degrees, 
necessitating  a  considerably  higher  temperature  of  the 
water  than  should  have  been  carried  for  the  greatest 
economy  of  fuel,  which  would  make  less  difference  with 
the  steam  system.  In  proof  of  this,  additional  pipes 
have  now  been  put  in,  and  the  hot  water  house  is  now 
carried  at  sixty  degrees  with  no  more  fuel  than  was  used 
at  fifty-five  degrees. 

COMPARATIVE    COST   OF   FUEL. 

"With  steam  it  is  claimed  that  a  cheaper  grade  of 
fuel  can  be  used  than  with  hot  water,  but  boilers  for  hot 
water  are  now  made  that  can  secure  better  results  from 
soft  coal  than  is  obtained  by  steam,  provided  similar  care 
is  given.  It  is  also  claimed  for  steam  that  it  admits  of 
the  boilers  being  located  in  a  battery  at  one  point,  rather 
than  scattered  in  different  houses  as  is  generallv  the  case 
with  hot  water.     With  modem  systems  of  piping,  the 


cosrcLUSioys.  133 

game  arrangement  can  be  uised,  and  tlie  water  can  be  car- 
ried in  large  mains  with  less  waste  than  when  ateam  ia 
used. 

Regarding  the  la=t  claim  in  faror  of  gteam,  i,  «.,  the 
economy  of  repairs,  it  may  be  said  that  when  the  same 
size  pipe  is  used  for  coils  in  both  systems,  a  break  can 
be  repaired  with  the  same  case  in  one  as  in  the  other. 
Moreover,  there  is  mor»  rn 

boiler  than  in  the  hot  v  -     ,rn 

return  is  rusted  through  in  from  fire  to  aeren  years,  a 
hot  water  pipe  will  be  found  in  go  '  '-?, 

and  the  outride  can  be  kept  from  .  .  ..g 

once  in  two  or  three  years  with  lampblack  and  oiL 

COXCLUSIOSS. 

Considered  from  the  point  cf  eflBciency  only,  there 
is  little  to  choose  between  the  systems,  although  the 
steam  heater  will  need  more  constant  attention,  and 
ordinarily   the   ten  -  ^        ^  ^-jj  ^  ^^^ 

regular  than  with  .  .  open  tank  or 

under  pressure. 

The  steam  plant  will  cost  fifteen  to  twenty  per  cent, 
less  than  the  open  tank  water  system,  and  somewhat  less 
than  the  pressure  system,  and  when  the  first  cost  of  the 
plant  is  any  object,  this  may  decide  for  that  system.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  cost  of  fuel  with  a  well-arranged  hot 
water  plant,  wOl  be  twenty  to  twenty-five  per  cent,  less 
than  with  steam,  and  as  this  will  pay  for  the  extra  cost 
of  the  plant  in  three  or  four  years,  it  becjomes  a  matter 
well  worth  considering.     It  then  comes  to  th  -  n 

whether  there  shall  be  a  large  cost  at  first,  t. 
paratively  small  outlay  for  fuel  and  repairs,  or  a  smaller 
first  cost,  and  a  larger  outlay  for  fuel  and  maintenance. 

Everything  considered,  the  man  who  has  less  than 
10,0CMJ  square  feet  of  glass,  will  find  hot  wa-  a 

open  tank  the  best  method  to  use.     AI  'V-  1'.',  f 


13i  GREENHOUSE    CONSTKUCTIOlf. 

glass,  it  -will  pay  to  have  a  niglit  fireman,  and,  as  the 
first  cost  for  a  plant  of  this  size  is  considerable,  the 
average  florist  will  j^refer  to  use  steam,  although  hot 
water  will  give  fully  as  good  results,  and  the  extra  ex- 
pense of  the  plant  will  be  saved  in  fuel  within  four  years. 
So  far  as  expense  for  fuel  is  concerned,  hot  water  under 
pressure  will  bo  classed  with  steam ;  it  gives  more  even 
results,  however,  and  the  cost  of  the  system  is  little  if 
any  more.  In  arriving  at  these  conclusions,  no  account 
is  taken  of  the  effect  of  the  different  systems  upon  plant 
growth,  as  we  believe  that  when  equally  well  cared  for 
there  will  be  little  or  no  difference. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

HEATING    SMALL   CONSEEVATORIES. 

For  amateur  conservatories,  Avith  over  300  square 
feet  of  glass,  unless  joined  to  a  residence  which  is 
heated  by  hot  water  or  steam,  it  will  be  found  desirable 
to  use  some  of  the  small  portable  hot  water  heaters  that 
are  manufactured  by  several  firms.  Wheu  these  are  used 
in  connection  with  a  well  arranged  system  of  pij)ing,  the 
care  of  the  house  is  greatly  simplified,  and  there  will  be 
little  risk  of  injury  to  the  plants  by  cold.  It  will  be  a 
desirable  thing,  if  the  dwelling  is  heated  with  stoves  or 
a  hot  air  furnace,  to  purchase  a  heater  large  enough  to 
warm  a  part  or  all  of  the  house,  and  put  in  j)ipes  and 
radiators. 

In  arranging  the  heating  system  for  the  conserva- 
tory, the  heater  should  be  placed  in  the  cellar  of  the 
house,  and  the  feed  pipes  should  pass  up  through  the 
floor  and  connect  with  the  radiating  pipes,  which  are 
generally  best  if  arranged  in  a  wall  coil,  with  manifolds 


THE   BARXAllD   IIEATEll.  135 

at  each  end.  An  air  valve  will  be  needed  at  the  higher 
end,  and  an  expansion  tank  should  be  connected  witli 
some  part  of  the  system.  It  should  l)e  of  galvanized 
iron,  althongh  an  old  paint  keg  would  answer.  It  sliould 
hold  a  gallon  for  each  hundred  feet  of  one  and  one-fourth 
inch  pipe,  and  a  gallon  for  tlie  hetiter  and  mains.  If  tlie 
tank  is  situated  vvhere  harm  to  floor  or  walls  will  be  done 
if  it  boils  over,  it  is  well  to  have  a  tight  cover  on  the 
tank  and  run  an  overflow  pipe  from  half-way  up  the  side 
of  the  tank  to  a  drain. 

For  conservatories  which  are  too  large  to  lieat  witli 
an  oil  stove,  a  home-made  water  heater  might  be  used. 
The  radiating  coil  and  attachments  would  be  similar  to 
those  just  described.  A  small  lieater  could  be  made  by 
using  a  small  coil  of  one-inch  pijie  containing  eight 
linear  feet  of  heating  surface,  inside  one  of  the  large 
sized  kerosene  heating  stoves.  This  would  warm  one 
hundred  and  fifty  linear  feet  of  one-inch  pipe,  and  would 
heat  a  conservatory  six  by  ten  feet  with  three  sides  and 
roof  of  glass.  Were  the  conservatory  uj)on  a  veranda 
where  only  the  roof,  side  and  one  end  were  exposed,  the 
capacity  would  be  suflScient  to  warm  about  six  by  fifteen 
feet,  and  if  the  roof  were  of  wood,  it  could  heat  a  space 
eight  by  twenty  feet. 

THE  BAENARD  HEATER. 

In  1890  Charles  Barnard  described  in  the  American 
Garden  a  very  simple  heater  that  gave  good  satisfaction 
in  a  detached  greenhouse.  The  heater  was  of  zinc  with 
four  tubes  of  one-inch  gas  pipe  (Fig.  75  A)\  the  diam- 
eter was  six  inches  and  the  height  tu'enty-seven  inches. 
From  this,  connections  were  made  with  the  coils  which 
were  of  two-inch  pipe,  although  one  and  one-quarter 
inch  pipe  would  be  preferable.  The  heater  was  placed 
over  an  oil  stove  or  gas  burner,  and  was  surrounded  l>y  ;i 
Jacket  of  sheet  iron  (Fi^.  75  B)  from  which  a  small  i»ipo 


136 


GKEENHOUSE    COKSTRTJCTIOIT, 


ran  to  the  outside  of  the  house  to  convey  the  smoke  and 
gases.  Another  form  of  lieater  is  made  in  the  shape  of 
a  hollow  truncated  cone,  uiue  inches  in  diameter  at  the 
bottom  and  six  at  the  top,  and  twenty-four  inches  high. 
The  water  is  one  inch  in  thickness  and  is  confined  between 
the  inner  and  outer  shells  of  the  heater.  This  is  j)laced 
over  an  oil  stove  and  arranged  in  much  the  same  way  as 
the  one  last  described. 


HEATIXG    BY   MEAXS   OE   FLUES. 

In  small  houses  where  one  does  not  have  the  means 
topnt  in  hot  water  or  steam,  fairly  good  results  can  be 

obtained  with  the  old-fash- 
ioned flue.  This  consists  of  a 
furnace  in  which  the  fuel  is 
burned,  and  a  horizontal  chim- 
ney passing  through  the  house. 
If  the  honse  is  not  over  fifty 
feet  in  length,  and  if  a  rise  of 
two  or  more  feet  can  be  se- 
cured, a  fair  draft  can  be  ob- 
tained by  having  the  chimney 
at  the  farther  end ;  but  in 
longer  houses,  or  where  the 
flues  must  be  run  on  a  level, 
it  is  best  to  bring  them  back, 
so  that  they  can  enter  a  chim- 
ney built  over  the  furnace. 
A  direct  connection  with  the  chimney  can  be  made 
when  the  fire  is  first  started,  and  then,  after  the  chimney 
has  become  warm,  a  damper  can  be  turned  which  will 
force  the  smoke  to  pass  around  through  the  house,  giving 
off  its  heat  as  it  goes.  The  furnace  can  be  constructed 
for  burning  either  coal,  or  wood  cut  in  lengths  of  from 
three  to  five  feet.  A  grate  containing  three  to  four 
squfixe  feet  will  answer  for  a  house  containing  COO  sc^uare 


FIG.   75. 
BAENAED   HEATEE. 


THE    rOLMAiSE   SYSTEM.  li{7 

feet  of  glass.  If  wood  is  used,  the  furnace  sliould  be 
eighteen  inches  wide  inside,  and  of  the  required  length, 
but  no  increase  of  the  size  of  the  grate  will  be  necessary. 
There  should  be  an  ash  pit  of  suitable  size,  and  iron 
doors  should  be  set  in  the  masonry  at  the  end  of  the 
furnace,  for  both  the  fire-pot  and  ash  pit.  The  top  of 
tlie  furnace  may  be  supported  either  by  a  brick  arch  or 
by  heavy  iron  bars.  The  inner  lining  of  the  heater 
should  be  of  fire  brick  laid  in  fire  clay,  and  the  same 
material  should  be  used  for  the  first  fifteen  feet  of 
the  flue.  Beyond  this  point,  common  stock  brick  will 
answer,  forming  a  flue  eight  by  twelve  to  sixteen  inches, 
or  eight  to  ten-inch  glazed  tile  may  be  used. 

Por  a  house  twelve  feet  in  Avidth^  one  flue  will 
answer;  but  if  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  wide,  it  is  well 
either  to  have  a  return  flue  on  the  other  side,  or  to 
divide  the  flue  and  carry  up  a  branch  on  each  side, 
either  under  the  walks  or  beneath  the  side  benches. 

A  hot  water  coil  can  be  economically  combined  with 
a  flue  by  using  cross-pieces  of  one  and  one-half  inch 
jiipe,  connected  by  return  bends,  across  the  side  walls  and 
supporting  the  top  of  the  heater,  and  connecting  them 
with  the  radiating  pipes.  If  a  flue  is  used  care  should 
be  taken  that  no  woodwork  comes  in  contact  with  the 
bricks  within  thirty  feet  of  the  furnace.  AVlien  houses 
are  very  long,  furnaces  may  be  j)laced  at  both  ends  and 
the  flues  can  be  carried  half  the  length  of  the  house  and 
brought  back  on  the  opjiosite  side. 

THE    POLMAISE   SYSTEM!. 

The  Polmaise  system  was  so-called  from  the  French 
town  where  it  was  first  used.  The  original  system  con- 
sisted in  bringing  a  current  of  air  over  a  heated  surface, 
and  then  carrying  it  into  the  greenhouse,  on  its  way 
passing  through  a  wet  blanket,  that  its  drying  effect 
might  be  lessened.     The  system  itself  is  of  no  value,  but 


138  GEEENHOUSE    CONSTBUCTIOiT. 

a  modified  form  of  it  may  be  used  in  connection  with  a 
flue.  By  building  an  air  chamber  around  the  furnace 
and  admitting  the  air,  much  as  in  common  hot  air  fur- 
naces, it  will  be  warmed,  and  can  be  carried  through  the 
house  in  tiles  much  as  are  the  products  of  combustion. 

The  cost  of  a  flue  is  less  than  half  that  of  a  hot 
water  or  steam  plant,  and  especially  if  combined  with 
hot  water,  as  described,  very  satisfactory  results  can  be 
obtained.  The  modified  Polmaise  system  could  also  be 
emi^loyed  with  profit,  if  the  coil  is  not  used. 

PIRE  HOTBEDS. 

In  addition  to  warming  hotbeds  by  means  of  decom- 
posing manure,  various  other  methods  of  heating  have 
been  tried,  the  simplest  being  a  modified  form  of  the 
ordinary  flue  as  just  described.  The  beds  can  be  single, 
for  sash  six  feet  long,  or  can  be  double  span-roofed  struc- 
tures, with  a  row  of  sash  on  each  side.  For  the  single 
beds  the  arch  or  furuace  need  not  be  over  one  foot  wide 
inside,  eighteen  inches  high,  and  four  or  five  feet  long. 
It  should  be  arched  over  with  brick  and  the  whole  then 
covered  with  soil.  In  order  to  secure  jDroper  slope  for 
the  fines,  the  hotbeds  should  be  located  on  a  hillside 
sloping  to  the  south,  and  the  flues  should  have  a  slope  of 
about  one  foot  in  twenty,  although  more  is  desirable. 
The  tile  used  for  the  flues  should  be  glazed  for  the  first 
twenty  feet  at  least,  and  six  inches  in  diameter,  and 
should  be  laid  in  two  lines,  three  feet  apart ;  at  the 
farther  end  the  tile  should  be  turned  up  at  right-angles 
forming  a  chimney.  An  ordinary  hotbed  frame  should 
be  set  over  this.  The  soil  at  the  furnace  end  should 
then  be  spread  on,  covering  the  arch  to  the  depth  of 
twelve  to  fifteen  inches,  and  the  pii:)es  at  the  chimney 
end  about  six  inches.  The  draft  can  be  regulated  by  a 
plate  of  iron  resting  against  the  end  of  the  arch.  The 
structure  will  last  several  years,  and  will  prove  a  great 


STEAM    AKD   HOT    AVATER  HEAT.  13'J 


III 


convcuieuce  where  one  does  not  have  a  greenhouse 
which  to  start  vegetable  plants,  and  where  wood  is  cheap. 

For  the  span-roof  hotbed,  two  arches  or  furnaces 
and  four  flues,  arranged  as  in  the  other  case,  will  be 
required. 

STEAM   A;S'D    HOT   WATER   HEAT   FOR   HOTBEDS. 

If  it  is  desired  to  warm  hotbeds  by  means  of  steam, 
it  can  be  done  by  running  a  one  and  one-quarter  inch 
steam  pipe  np  in  one  line  of  four-inch  drain  tile,  and 
back  in  another  line  laid  as  described  for  the  flues  witli 
the  narrow  beds,  while  four  lines  would  be  required  for 
a  bed  twelve  feet  wide.  When  exhaust  steam  is  at  hand 
it  can  be  used  without  the  steam  pipe  by  merely  dis- 
charging it  into  the  tile. 

A  frame  can  be  heated  by  hot  water  or  steam  if  a 
two-inch  hot  water  or  an  inch  and  a  quarter  steam  pipe  is 
run  around  the  inside,  next  to  the  plank.  Boards  should 
then  be  placed  so  as  to  shut  off  all  direct  heat  from  tlie 
plants.  If  a  crack  two  inches  wide  is  left  between  the 
top  of  the  boards  and  the  glass,  the  heat  will  be  diffused 
and  will  not  dry  out  the  jjlants. 


CHAPTEK  XXII. 

COMMERCIAL    ESTABLISHMENTS. 

A  florist  just  starting  in  business  may  be  compelled 
by  lack  of  means  to  commence  upon  a  small  scale. 
While  he  would  find  a  lean-to  house  the  cheapest  to 
erect — provided  he  built  it  against  the  south  wall  of  a 
building — the  excess  of  cost  for  a  span-roof  house  would 
be  so  slight,  and  the  results  obtained  would  be  so  much 
greater,  that  he  would  be  wise  in  selecting  that  form  for 
3-  house,     The  size  for  the  house  must  be  determined  by 


140 


GREENHOUSE    CONSTRUCTIOX. 


the  business  to  be  done,  but  for  most  purposes  a  house 
of  twenty  feefc  in  width  is  preferable  to  anything  nar- 
rower, aud  an  enterprising  florist  shorld  be  able  to  utilize 
one  that  is  fifty  feet  long.     It  is  desirable  to  have  both 


VeTTj/va  ^^/ucn 


WOT^f<    f^OO/Vj 


Hor 


orner  / 


Tabi-t 


HOl/SZ 


S A  1.1.3    -T^OOM  s. 


&s 


&OOZ 


i-ioosz 


FIG.  76.      PLAiT  POR  A  SMALL  ESTABLISHMENT. 

a  cool  and  a  warm  house,  and  this  can  be  secured  by  run- 
ning a  glass  partition  across  the  house. 

If  this  amount  of  glass  is  not  sufiBcient,  a  second 
house  can  be  built  similar  to  the  first  one,  and  then  he 
will  have  one  house  to  be  kept  at  a  temperature  of  fifty- 
five  to  sixty  degrees  and  another  that  can  be  kept  at 
forty-five  to  fifty  degrees.     Although  other  houses  are 


COMMERCIAL    ESTAIiLISHMENTS.  141 

desirable,  a  good  selection  of  plants  can  l)e  grown  in  two 
such  houses  with  fair  success.  If  l)usiness  develops,  as 
it  should,  it  will  be  desirable  to  add  a  rose  house.  This 
should  be  of  the  three-quarter  span  form,  eighteen  and 
one-half  feet  wide,  and  will  give  an  opportunity  for  tlie 
erection  of  a  north  side  propagating  house,  Avhich  can  not 
ouly  be  used  for  propagating,  but  will  be  excellent  for 
ferns,  violets,  pansies,  and  for  the  starting  of  seeds  and 
bulbs.  The  even  span  houses  could  run  north  and  soutli 
with  a  "workroom  at  the  north  end  tw^enty-five  by  twenty- 
five  feet,  while  the  rose  house  could  join  the  end  of  the 
workroom  and  run  east  and  west,  as  shown  in  Fig.  7G. 
A  convenient  arrangement  for  the  workroom  and  store 
is  shown  in  the  illustration,  which  can  readily  be  under- 
stood. 

If  still  other  enlargement  of  the  establishment  be- 
comes necessary,  the  additional  buildings  can  be  put  up 
parallel  to  the  present  ones,  or  they  can  be  run  out  the 
other  way  from  the  workroom.  Another  method  would 
be  by  lengthening  the  buildings  already  put  up,  but  for 
small  establishments  it  will  hardly  be  desirable  to  extend 
them  beyond  a  length  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet. 

In  addition  to  the  general  florist  and  vegetable 
grower,  we  find  to-day  engaged  in  greenhouse  Avork 
many  specialists,  and  among  these  the  commercial  rose 
grower  and  the  lettuce  grower,  from  the  extent  of  their 
business,  are  especially  worthy  of  notice.  As  in  every- 
thing else,  we  find,  as  a  rule,  that  these  specialists  who 
have  turned  their  every  effort  to  the  doing  of  one  thing 
well,  are  masters  of  their  business,  and  have  been  quick 
to  avail  themselves  of  all  the  latest  improvements. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

ROSE   HOUSES. 

The  form  and  general  arrangement  of  the  houses 
used  for  forcing  roses,  is  practically  the  same  the  country- 
over,  and  when  one  speaks  of  a  "rose  house,"  he  is 
readily  understood.  A  rose  house  may  be  briefly  defined 
as  a  three-quarter  span  greenhouse,  about  eighteen  feet 
wide,  with  two  narrow  beds  at  the  sides,  and  with  two 
somewhat  Avider  ones  in  the  center.  No  form  of  house 
has  been  tried  for  this  purpose  that  is  on  the  whole  as 
satisfactory  as  this,  of  which  a  good  example  of  an  ex- 
terior will  be  found  in  Fig.  77. 

They  are  cheapest  to  build  and  easiest  to  heat  if  con- 
structed with  wooden  walls  up  to  the  plate,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  82,  but  many  of  our  best  rose  growers  are  of  the 
opinion  that  the  extra  cost  of  erection  and  maintenance  is 
more  than  repaid  by  the  results  obtained,  when  there  is 
from  eighteen  to  twenty-four  inches  of  glass  in  the  south 
wall  and  ends  under  the  plate.  There  seems  to  be  a  diver- 
sity of  opinion  as  to  the  best  width  for  rose  houses,  the 
range  being  from  sixteen  to  twenty  feet ;  but  it  is  the  gen- 
eral idea  that  in  the  houses  sixteen  feet  wide  there  is  a 
lack  of  economy  of  siaace,  unless  the  walks  are  made 
rather  narrow.  With  the  side  walks  eighteen  to  twenty 
inches  wide,  and  a  w^alk  between  tbe  center  benches  with 
a  width  of  twelve  inches,  there  will  be  room  for  four 
benches  of  average  widths ;  but  for  convenience  the  walks 
at  the  side  should  not  be  less  than  two  feet  in  width,  and 
the  center  walk  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  inches.  A  con- 
venient width  for  the  front  bench  is  thirty  inches,  which 

142 


KOSE  HOUSES.  14;J 

will  answer  for  three  rows  of  plants;  the  center  beds 
should  be  three  feet  and  six  inches,  each  holding  four 
rows,  and  the  back  bed  two  feet  in  widtli  Avith  two  rows 
of  plants.  If  the  front  wall  is  made  six  inches,  and  the 
rear  one  eight  inches  in  thickness,  with  the  benches 
set  out  to  prevent  drip  from  the  plate,  a  house  with 
the  above  widths  for  walks  and  benches  will  be  about 
eighteen  feet  and  six  inches  to  the  outside  of  the  walls. 
In  locating  the  height  of  the  benches,  the  tops  of  the 
cross  bearers  for  the  front  and  back  bench  should  be 
about  twenty  inches  below  the  plates ;  the  south  center 
bench  should  be  at  the  same  height  as  the  front  bench, 
and  the  north  one  about  eighteen  inches  higher,  8ome 
growers  prefer  to  have  both  of  the  center  benches  level, 
but  if  careful  attention  is  given  to  the  watering,  rather 
better  results  will  be  obtained  if  they  are  given  a  slight 
slope  to  the  south,  say  of  eight  inches  in  the  width  of 
one  bench  or  of  eighteen  inches  between  the  walks 
(Fig.  63). 

It  is  quite  desirable  in  arranging  the  roof  to  have 
the  ridge  and  purlin  come  over  the  walks.  If  an  iron 
frame-work  is  used  with  a  truss  at  the  ridge,  there  will 
be  no  necessity  for  a  support  under  the  ridge ;  but  if  the 
roof  is  of  wood,  particularly  if  there  are  no  princij)al 
rafters,  a  post  should  be  used,  and  the  ridge  should  be 
so  located  that  the  post  can  pass  down  at  the  north  side 
of  the  center  bench.  While  one  purlin  with  one  row 
of  posts — in  addition  to  the  one  under  the  ridge— will 
support  a  roof  of  this  Avidth,  lighter  material  can  be 
employed,  and  there  will  be  less  trouble  from  drij)  if  two 
of  each  are  used,  with  the  posts  coming  down  at  the 
south  side  of  each  of  the  center  benches. 

Particularly  in  rose  forcing  houses,  it  is  desirable  to 
have  the  slope  of  the  roof  arranged  to  trap  as  mnch  as 
possible  of  light  and  heat  from  the  sun  during  the  win- 
ter months,  and,  everything  else  considered,  the  south 


144 


GREENHOUSE    CONSTRUCTION. 


EOSE  HOUSES. 


14; 


10 


146  GREENHOUSE  CONSTRUCTION. 

pitch  of  the  roof  should  slope  at  the  rate  of  about  two 
feet  for  every  three  feet  in  width  of  house.  With  the 
ridge  posts  at  a  distance  of  fourteen  feet  from  the  out- 
side of  the  south  wall,  the  bottom  of  the  ridge  should 
be  about  eight  feet  higher  than  the  top  of  the  south  wall, 
or  twelve  feet  from  the  ground  level,  with  the  south  wall 
four  feet  in  height.  This  will  require  a  rafter  slightly 
less  than  sixteen  feet  in  length  on  the  front,  and  six  feet 
on  the  rear  slope  of  the  roof,  when  the  rear  wall  is  eight 
feet  in  height.  Another  good  form  for  a  commercial 
rose  house  is  the  one  described  in  Chapter  III.,  with  the 
sides  of  the  roof  fifteen  and  seven  and  one-half  feet,  and 
the  height  of  the  front  and  back  walls  five  and  seven 
feet  respectively.  In  a  house  of  this  shape  there  should 
be  a  line  of  glass  under  the  plate  of  the  south  wall  (Fig, 
77).  While  the  even-span  house  is  not  as  well  adapted 
for  rose  forcing  as  the  three-quarter  span  house,  it  is  fre- 
quently used,  and  will  give  very  fair  results.  These 
houses  may  be  eighteen  to  twenty  feet  wide,  with  four 
benches,  about  three  and  one-half  feet  each,  in  width. 

The  best  results  seem  to  be  obtained  from  benches 
not  over  four  inches  in  depth,  although  this  varies  with 
the  character  of  the  soil,  as  three  and  one-half  inches  of 
heavy  soil  will  be  equal  to  four  and  one-half  inches  of 
soil  of  a  sandy  nature.  In  selecting  the  material  for  the 
bottoms  of  rose  benches,  a  first  choice  would  be  for  tile, 
second  slate,  and  third  wood.  In  jilanning  our  rose 
houses  everything  has  been  arranged  upon  the  presump- 
tion that  shallow  beds  were  to  be  used,  as  this  seems  to 
be  the  favorite  method  of  growing  them. 

When  there  is  no  glass  beneath  tlie  jjlate  on  the 
south  wall,  the  custom  in  the  past  has  been  to  have  a 
single  line  of  ventilators  at  the  ridge,  but  many  of  the 
more  recently  constructed  houses  have  a  line  of  sash  on 
each  side  of  the  ridge ;  if  these  are  properly  used,  the 
draft  of  air  upon  the  plants  is  greatly  decreased.     The 


liOSE   HOUSES. 


H7 


148 


GREElsrHOUSE   COKSTRUCTIOX. 


use  of  ventilating  sasli  in  the  south  wall  is  also  quite 
common. 

During  the  last  five  years  many  large  and  well 
arranged  commercial  rose  houses  have  been  erected,  and 
we  are  glad  to  be  able  to  show  illustrations  of  two  plants 
that  contain  many  of  the  latest  ideas.  In  Fig.  77  will 
be  seen  a  perspective  view  of  the  rose  houses  erected  for 
W.  P.  ^Vight  of  Madison,  N   J.,  by  Thos.  AY.  Weath- 


FIG.    80.       RECTIOK    OF   IROX   ROSE    HOUSE. 

ered's  Sons  of  ISTew  York  City.  From  this  we  can  get  an 
idea  of  the  general  appearance  of  the  better  class  of 
commercial  ]-ose  houses.  They  are  each  about  three 
hundred  feet  long  by  tAventy  feet  Avide. 

One  of  the  best  arrauged  and  most  thoroughly  con- 
structed commercial  greenhouse  plants  in  the  country  is 
shown  in  Fig.  78.  It  was  built  in  1890  at  Scarborough, 
N.  Y.,  for  F.  E.  Pierson,  by  Lord  k  Burnham  Co.  As 
will  be  seen  by  the  ground  plan,  Fig.  79,  there  arc  eight 
houses,  each  measuring  one  hundred  and  fifty  by  twenty 
feet.  They  are  placed  in  pairs,  end  to  end,  except  for  a 
narrow  passage  way  which  affords  a  ready  means  of 
communication  with  the  different  houses  and  with  ^.he 


.^OPtBTVf^^C 


ROSE  nousEs.  140 

potting  shed.  At  tlio  rear  of  tlie  second  line  of  liouses 
is  a  propagating  house,  nine  feet  wide  and  three  hundred 
feet  long,  or  really  two  houses  each  one  hundred  and 
fifty  feet.  The  construction  is  the  same  as  is  recom- 
mended in  Chapter  VII.,  the  rafters  and  posts  being  of 
iron,  with  the  lower  ends  of  the  latter  set  in  cement  in 
the  ground.  The  purlins  and  ridge  are  also  of  iron  and 
all  woodwork  of  cypress.  The  benches  have  an  iron 
frame  and  slate  bottom.  The  heat  is  furnished  from 
steam  boilers  located  as  shown  in  the  ground  plan.  A 
cross  section  of  one  of  these  houses  is  shown  in  Fig.  80, 
from  which  one  can  obtain  a  good  idea  of  the  slope  of 
the  roof  and  of  the  interior  arrangement,  while  Fig.  81 
shows  another  method  of  construction. 

A  house  of  this  description  can  be  erected  for  about 
$25.50  per  running  foot,  including  the  steam-heating 
apparatus.  With  hemlock  benches  the  cost  would  not 
be  over  $30.75,  and  were  the  glass  left  out  under  the 
south  plate,  leaving  only  one  line  of  ventilating  appar- 
atus at  the  ridge,  the  cost  could  be  reduced  to  $30.00  jjcr 
linear  foot.  This  would  give  double  strength,  French 
"seconds"  or  American  "firsts"  glass,  and  two  coats  of 
paint.  Eeckoning  the  steam-heating  apparatus  at  $4.50 
per  linear  foot,  the  house  complete  as  above,  with  cheap 
wooden  benches  and!" without  heating  apparatus,  would 
cost  something  over  $15.00  per  foot.  A\  lien  iron  benches 
with  wooden  bottoms  are  used,  the  house  with  one  row 
of  ventilating  apparatus  and  steam-heating  apparatus, 
would  cost  not  far  from  $33.00  per  foot.  If  one  does  not 
care  to  use  the  iron  construction,  cypress  luml^er  can  be 
obtained  for  the  erection  of  a  rose,  or,  in  fact,  of  any 
kind  of  a  greenhouse,  all  gotten  out  in  the  most  ap- 
proved sizes  and  shapes,  ready  to  be  fitted  togetlier. 

There  are  a  half-dozen  or  more  firms  who  make  a 
specialty  of  cypress  for  greenhouse  building,  among  the 
oldest  of  which  is  the  Lockland  Lumber  Co.,  of  Lock- 


150 


GllEENnOUSE   CONSTEUCTIOif. 


ROSE   HOUSES. 


101 


lanfl,  Ohio.  Bj  request  tlicj  have  preparea  a  ground 
plan,  cross  section  and  details  of  a  rose  house  such  as 
they  furnish,  and  they  are  here  presented  as  suggestions 
to  prospective  builders.  The  cross  section  is  slio\vn  in 
Fig.  82  and  is  so  clear  that  any  carpenter  could  put  the 
house  together.  The  details  are  shoAvn  in  Chapter  \L 
and  afford  us  an  idea  of  some  of  the  best  shapes  for  the 
different  parts  of  a  greenliouse,  and  the  Avay  to  put  them 
together.  The  patterns  do  not  differ  materially  from 
those  used  by  other  dealers  in  greenhouse  materials,  uud 


FIG.    82.       SECTIOX   OF   ROSE   HOUSE    (woOI)). 

perhaps  the  best  advice  that  could  be  given  to  a  person 
intending  to  build  a  rose  house  would  be,  in  case  one 
could  not  afford  to  build  a  house  with  an  iron  frame- 
work, to  write  to  the  nearest  dealer  in  cypress  lumber  fur 
plans  and  estimates  for  the  proposed  structure. 

As  a  partial  guide  in  the  matter,  the  following  esti- 
mate is  offered  as  the  probable  cost  of  c}i)ress  lumber 
for  the  erection  of  a  three-quarter  span  rose  forcing 
house.  This  includes  all  lumber  required  above  the 
walls  for  a  house  with  one  glass  gable ;  the  lumber  being 


20'  long 

@ 

§0.071/2 

$1.50 

s,    200' 

& 

•11  Va 

23.00 

100' 

® 

.08 

8.00 

100' 

@ 

.021/2 

2.50 

1.00' 

@ 

.031/2 

3.50 

40' 

@ 

.0314 

1.61 

80' 

@ 

.01% 

1.40 

1,886' 

@ 

.021/4 

.43 

100' 

@ 

.021/2 

2.50 

100' 

@ 

.16 

16.00 

X  7'  X  1% 

V 

4.75 

153  GREENHOUSE    CONSTRUCTION'. 

dressed  upon  four  faces  and  worked  to  projier  shape  with 
dimensions  as  given,  including  door  and  one  row  of 
ventilators. 

ESTIMATE  FOR  CYPRESS  LUMBER    FOR  A  THREE-QUARTER  SPAN 
FORCING  HOUSE,  100  FEET  BY  20  FEET. 

Gable  Tlate,  1%"  x  7" 

Side  Gutters,  Bottoms  and  two  sides, 
Ridge  riecos,  71/2"  x  1%" 

Ridge  Cap,  IVs"  x  3i/i" 

Purlin,  1%"  x  Si." 

End  Rafters,  1%"  x  3"     ^  °^    '''I 

'*■  2  of  16'  i 

Gable  Sash  Bars,         For  one  gable, 

Roof  Sash  Bars,  ^^  °^   '^'] 

82  of  16'  i 

Header,  1%"  x  214" 

Ventilators,  3'  wide  1%" 

Door  and  Frame,  Door  3' : 

$107.19 

For  the  construction  of  the  walls  twenty-six  posts 
seven  feet  long,  and  costing  about  twelve  cents  each  for 
cedar,  and  twenty-one  posts  twelve  feet  long,  which  will 
cost  about  twenty-five  cents  each,  or  about  ten  dollars 
for  posts,  will  be  required.  Red  cedar  will  cost  two  or 
three  times  as  much,  and  locust,  which  will  be  found 
very  durable,  will  vary  in  price  but  will  generally  cost 
less  than  red  cedar.  For  sheathing  the  building  1,300 
feet  of  matched  hemlock,  costing  from  $10.00  to  115.00 
per  thousand,  will  be  required,  and  the  outside  siding 
will  take  1,500  feet,  Avliich  will  cost  about  $20.00  per 
thousand.  A  small  amount  of  finishing  lumber,  build- 
ing paper  and  nails  will  comj^lete  the  exterior,  with  the 
exception  of  the  painting  and  glazing.  The  interior  will 
require  tables  and  walks,  gas-pij)e  posts  and  ventilating 
and  heating  apparatus,  which,  with  hinges  and  other 
hardware  for  door  and  ventilators,  will  cover  the  neces- 
sary materials  for  the  erection  of  a  forcing  house. 

The  cost  of  the  lumber  will  be  about  $230.00; 
glass,  2,500  feet  at  $3.50  per  box  for  double  strength  B, 
$175.00;  ventilating  apparatus,  $30.00;  nails  and  hard- 


ROSE   noiSES.  J,j;j 

ware,  $6.00;  paint  and  putty,  ^50.00;  building  paper, 
$5.00;  gas-pipo  i)osts,  ll-.^oO;  making  a  tutat  cost  of 
materials  for  the  liouse,  exclusive  of  labor,  of  about 
$500.00  to  $525.00.  The  heating  apparatus,  water  sup- 
ply, etc.,  will  be  additional.  The  former  will  cost  about 
$400.00  if  hot  water  is  used,  and  not  far  from  $340.00 
for  steam,  including  labor.  If  the  house  is  erected  by 
hired  labor  the  cost  will  be  from  $250.00  to  $300.00  for 
the  carpenters  and  painters,  according  to  tbe  experience 
of  the  men  and  the  wages  paid. 

Briefly  summarized  then,  the  cost  of  a  three-cpiarter 
span  forcing  house  complete  with  heating  apparatus 
will  be: 

Lumber  for  waUs $60.00 

Liunber  for  roof  aiul  freiglit 115.00 

Lumber  for  benches 4.5.00 

Lumber  for  waUcs lO.oo 

Gla.s.s,  50  boxes  1(J"  x  20" 175.00 

Paint  and  putty 50.00 

Ventilating  ai^paratus 30.00 

Hardware G.OO 

Building  paper 5.00 

Gas-pipe  posts,  IV4  inch  and  1  incli 12.50 

Labor,  carpenters .S125.00  to  150.00 

Painters  and  glaziers 125.00  to  150.00 

Heater,  sniolie  pipe,  etc 200.00 

Pipe,  valves,  and  fittings 100.00  to  1.50.00 

Labor 40.00  to    50.00 

Total. $1,098..50  to  .?1, 208.50 

Or,  .ifll.OO  to  §12.25  per  linear  foot. 

In  the  above  estimate,  the  grading,  drainage,  water 
supply,  and  the  cost  of  a  potting  shed,  furnace  cellar, 
etc.,  are  not  considered.  Of  course,  the  cost  of  the 
lumber  and  the  expense  for  labor,  etc.,  would  vary  in 
different  localities,  so  that  no  estimate  can  be  made  that 
will  apply  in  all  cases,  but  wdiere  lumber  can  be  obtained 
at  from  $12.00  to  $20.00  per  thousand,  according  to  the 
grade,  and  labor  of  carpenters  and  jjainters  is  not  over 
$2.50  per  day,  the  above  will  be  sufficiently  reliable  to 
furnish  a  fair  idea  of  the  cost.     The  cost  of  an  even- 


154  GEEENHOUSE    COlSrSTRUCTIOm 

span  house  Tvill  be  about  the  same,  and,  if  the  back  wall 
has  to  be  built  for  a  lean-to,  it  will  cost  fully  as  much  as 
the  others  for  the  same  width  of  house.  In  this  esti- 
mate over  $300.00  is  allowed  for  labor,  and  as  many 
florists  would  do  most  of  the  work  themselves,  a  consid- 
erable reduction  could  be  made  in  this  item. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 

LETTUCE   HOUSES. 

Although  we  still  find  many  growers  of  lettuce  using 
houses  of  lean-to  or  narrow  even  span  construction,  the 
wide  houses  are  raj)idly  superseding  them.  Perhaj^s 
the  largest  house  ever  erected  for  the  purpose  was  con- 
structed by  W.  W.  Eawson  of  Arlington,  Mass.,  who 
has  been  engaged  in  the  growing  of  lettuce  and  other 
garden  produce  for  the  Boston  market  for  many  years. 

This  house  is  three  hundred  and  seventy  feet  long 
and  thirty-three  feet  wide.  It  is  of  the  three-quarter 
span  form,  and  measures  fifteen  feet  high  at  the  ridge, 
with  a  south  wall  three  and  one-half  feet  high,  and  the 
north  one  twelve  feet  in  height.  The  glass  is  double 
strength,  twenty  by  thirty  inches.  The  crop  from  this 
one  house  is  about  two  thousand  dozen  heads,  which 
sometimes  brings  from  12,000.00  to  $2,500.00.  Three 
crops  are  grown  in  a  year  besides  a  crop  of  cucumbers. 
While  this  is  the  largest  house  of  the  kind,  there  are 
many  smaller  ones  constructed  upon  the  same  general 
lines,  and  they  seem  to  be  uniformly  successful. 

LEAK-TO  LETTUCE  HOUSES. 

The  lettuce  is  a  plant  that  succeeds  well  in  a  lean-to 
lettuce  honse^  such  as  is  used  by  many  of  the  lettuce 


LEAN-TO    LETTUCE   IIOUSEii. 


155 


growers  in  the  Yicinity  of  Boston,  oC  wliicli  a  cross  sec- 
tion is  shoAvn  in  Fig.  83.  Like  all  lean-to  houses  those 
are  easily  warmed  and  are  clieai)ly  constructed,  but  they 
do  not  have  a  sufficient  pitch  to  the  roof  to  secure  the 
most  benefit  from  the  sun.  They  are  commonly  given  a 
l^itch  of  about  eighteen  degrees,  but  even  at  this  slo])e, 
a  lean-to  roof  on  a  house  tliirty-three  feet  wide  would 
require  a  north  wall  about  fifteen  feet  high,  Avhile  a 
three-quarter  span  house  can  have  a  pitch  of  twenty-two 
degrees,  and  the  north  wall  need  not  be  over  ten  or 
twelve  feet  high. 

With  houses  up  to  a  width  of   twenty-live  feet,  a 
proper  slope  can  be  secured  without  carrying  the  north 


FIG.    83.       LEAlSr-TO   LETTUCE    HOUSE    {Scctiou). 


wall  to  an  undue  height,  or  raising  the  glass  too  high 
above  the  plants ;  unless  upon  a  sidehill,  this  width 
cannot  be  very  much  exceeded  with  this  style  of  house. 
The  three-quarter  span  house  can  readily  be  made  eight 
or  ten  feet  wider  than  the  lean-to,  without  carrying  the 
roof  to  a  greater  height,  while  the  north  wall  will  be 
considerably  lower  than  it  would  be  in  the  lean-to.  Hav- 
ing determined  upon  the  width  and  style  of  roof  for  tlie 
house,  the  construction  will  be  very  simple,  if  the  sug- 


156  GREEIsHOUSE   CONSTRUCTION. 

gestions  given  in  Chapters  Y.  and  VI.  as  to  the  best 
methods  of  erecting  the  walls  and  roof  are  followed. 

Lettuce  houses  should  have  from  eighteen  to  thirty 
inches  of  glass  in  the  south  wall,  and,  on  many  accounts, 
it  is  desirable  that  the  alternate  sash  at  least  be  arranged 
as  ventilators.  Particularly  in  the  wide  houses  with  flat 
roofs,  the  sash  bars  should  be  somewhat  heavier  than  for 
small  houses  with  steep  slopes,  and  should  be  very  care- 
fully supported.  For  lean-to  houses  twenty-five  feet  wide, 
there  should  be  at  least  three  rows  of  purlins  and  purlin 
posts. 

A  house  of  this  description  will  require  a  back  Avail 
at  least  ten  feet  high,  if  built  on  level  ground.  A  post 
and  double-boarded  wall  will  be  fully  as  satisfactory  as 
one  built  of  brick  or  masonry  of  any  kind.  For  con- 
venience in  handling  the  soil,  and  to  assist  in  ventilation, 
it  is  well  to  liave  small  windows,  perhaps  two  and  one- 
half  feet  square,  once  in  ten  feet,  in  this  wall.  "When 
solid  beds  are  used,  the  south  wall  should  not  be  more 
than  three  and  one-haK  feet  high,  although  it  may  be 
somewhat  higher  if  the  lettuce  is  grown  in  raised  beds. 

The  side-hill  houses  (Fig.  8)  will  also  be  found  quite 
desirable  for  lettuce  forcing,  as  they  are  nothing  more 
than  a  number  of  lean-to  houses  placed  close  together, 
and  they  Avill  be  found  not  only  economical  in  construc- 
tion and  heating,  but  in  land  and  in  labor  of  handling 
the  crops,  although  the  three-quarter  span  houses  are 
generally  preferred  to  either  of  the  above  styles. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

'T 

PROPAGATIlSrO    HOUSE. 

In  connection  witli  every  greenhouse  there  should 
be'  a  bench  for  the  rooting  of  cuttings,  and  in  large 
establishments  one  or  more  houses  will  be  required  for 
this  purjjose.  The  simplest  method  of  erectiug  a  prop- 
agating house,  when  one  has  a  rose  or  other  three-quarter 
span  house,  is  shown  in  Fig.  Gl.  The  structure  is  known 
as  a  ''north-side  house,"  and,  if  it  is  not  entirely  needed 
for  propagating  purposes,  can  be  utilized  for  ferns,  \'io- 
lets,  and  other  plants  that  thrive  without  direct  sunlight. 
In  arranging  some  establishments,  a  narrow  house, 
connecting  the  ends  of  the  main  houses,  is  often  a  con- 
venience. If  upon  the  north,  or  even  on  the  east  or 
west  ends,  as  it  generally  is,  this  head  house  can  be  made 
seven  feet  wnde,  with  a  lean-to  roof,  and  Avill  serve  an 
excellent  purpose  as  a  propagating  house.  AVIion  any  of 
these  locations  cannot  be  utilized,  a  narrow  even-span 
house  can  be  used  for  this  purpose,  and  will  be  well 
adapted  for  it. 

The  construction  of  the  house  will  not  differ  from 
that  of  a  similar  house  for  other  purposes,  but  its  in- 
terior arrangement  should  be  somewhat  different.  As  a 
table  for  a  propagating  house,  an  ordinary  greenhouse 
bench  will  answer,  but,  in  order  to  secure  and  control 
the  necessary  bottom  heat,  the  front  of  the  bench  should 
be  boarded  up,  with  one  board  on  hinges  so  tliat  it  can 
be  used  to  regulate  the  temperature.  For  tlic  propaga- 
tion of  most  plants  this  bench  will  answer  as  well  as  a 

157 


158  GREENHOUSE    CONSTRUCTION-. 

more  elaborate  construction.  Tlie  heating  pipes  slionld 
all  be  under  the  bench,  and  should  give  a  radiating  sur- 
face about  twenty-five  per  cent,  greater  than  would  be 
required  in  a  growing  house  for  the  same  plants  as  are 
to  be  propagated. 

WATER   BENCH. 

The  use  of  the  old-fashioned  wooden  water  bench 
has  been  abandoned,  although  the  galvanized  iron  water 
bench  is  quite  common.  If  this  is  used  the  trough 
should  be  about  four  inches  deep,  and  of  the  width  and 
length  of  the  proposed  cutting  bench.  It  should  be  well 
supported,  so  that  there  will  be  no  danger  of  its  settling 
at  any  point.  The  bottom  of  the  cutting  bench,  upon 
which  the  sand  is  to  be  placed,  should  be  just  above  the 
tank.  The  tank  should  be  connected  at  each  end  by 
means  of  one  and  one-fourth  inch  pipes  with  a  hot  water 
heating  apparatus.  When  the  heating  pipes  in  the  sys- 
tem are  all  below  the  level  of  the  tank,  no  cover  will  be 
required,  but,  if  at  any  j)oint  the  piping  is  overhead,  a 
closed  tank  will  be  necessary,  or  an  independent  heater 
can  be  used  for  the  propagating  house,  in  which  case 
the  water  tank  will  answer  as  the  expansion  tank  for  the 
system.  When  tanks  are  used,  the  heating  pipes  should 
be  sufficient  to  maintain  a  temperature  of  forty-five  to 
fifty  degrees  without  the  tank. 

PROPAGATING    CASE. 

While  cuttings  of  most  plants  require  thorough  ven- 
tilation, many  stove  species  can  only  be  struck  with 
success  in  a  close,  moist  atmosphere.  When  only  a  few 
are  to  be  rooted,  the  required  conditions  can  be  secured 
by  the  use  of  a  bell  glass,  or  liand  glass,  but,  if  many 
are  to  be  struck,  a  propagating  case  will  be  a  necessity. 
This  can  readily  be  constructed  upon  the  bench,  prefer- 
ably at  the  warmer  end.     The  ends  and  front  can  be 


HOTBEDS. 


159 


made  of  sash  bars  aud  glass.  A  portion  of  the  front, 
however,  sliouhl  ho  of  ghiss  sash,  arranged  to  slide  by  one 
another  aud  give  ready  access  to  all  parts  of  the  case. 


CHAPTER    XXVI. 


HOTBEDS. 


Among  the  movable  plant  structures,  we  have  what 
are  known  as  hotbeds  and  cold  frames.  They  differ 
only  in  the  degree  of  heat  they  receive,  the  cold  frame 
being  without  artificial  heat,  while  the  hotbed  is  heated 
by  fermenting  vegetable  substances,  generally  stable  ma- 
nure, leaves,  and  other  refuse.  The  hotbed,  in  some  of 
its  forms,  is  a  very  de- 
sirable, and,  in  fact, 
almost  a  necessary  ad- 
junct to  the  green- 
house, for  all  florists 
and  market  gardeners. 
On  the  other  hand, 
while  a  large  business 
can  be  carried  ou  with 
hotbeds  alone,  the  possession  of  a  greouhouse,  small  and 
cheaply  constructed  though  it  be,  will  be  a  great  con- 
venience, particularly  to  the  market  gardener,  for  the 
starting  of  young  plants  during  the  severe  weather  of 
midwinter. 

The  simplest  kind  of  a  hotl)ed,  and  the  one  gener- 
ally used,  is  about  six  feet  wide,  and  of  any  desired 
length,  with  the  sash  sloping  toward  the  south.  "While 
hotbeds  are  often  made  of  one-inch  boards,  or  are 
cheajily  constructed  of  waste  pieces  of  lumber,  they  will 
be  more  satisfactory  if  constructed  of  lumber  that  is  one 


FIG.    84.      HOTBED   FEAME. 


IGO  GEEENHOUSE    CONSTRUCTION". 

and  one-half  or  two  inches  thick,  carefully  framed 
together  and  painted.  A  very  satisfactory  hotbed  can 
be  made  from  three  pieces  of  two-inch  hemlock  lumber 
one  foot  wide  and  twelve  feet  long.  In  order  to  give 
the  sash  a  proper  jiitth  to  the  south,  one  side  of  the  bed 
should  be  made  six  inches  wider  than  the  other.  When 
planks  with  a  width  of  twelve  inches  are  used  this  can 
be  readily  secured,  by  sawing  a  strip  three  inches  wide 
from  the  edge  of  one,  and  nailing  it  to  the  edge  of 
another,  Fig.  84.  In  this  way  we  secure  a  plank  nine 
inches  wide  (B)  for  the  south  side  of  the  bed,  while  tbat 
for  the  north  side  (A)  will  have  a  width  of  fifteen  inches. 
The  ends  should  be  cut  six  feet  long,  and  the  jn'oper 
slope  can  be  given  them  by  sawing  off  a  triangular  strip 
from  one  end,  and  nailing  it  upon  the  other  end  of  the 
piece,  as  at  C,  in  Fig.  84. 

POKTABLE   PRAMES. 

A  portable  hotbed  frame  is  often  used,  and  as  it  can 
be  taken  apart  and  stored  out  of  the  sun  and  rain  for 


FIG.    85.       FRAME    AND    SASH. 

six  months  of  the  year,  it  will  last  for  many  seasons. 
By  fastening  irons  of  proper  shape  to  the  ends  of 
each  of  the  side  boards,  and  boring  holes  to  correspond 
in  the  end  pieces,  the  frame  can  be  held  together  by 
washers  and  pins,  as  shown  at  B,  Fig.  84.  Cross  bear- 
ers, D,  four  inches  wide  and  one  inch  thick,  dovetailed 
into  the  edges  of  the  front  and  back  boards,  will  keep 
the  bed  from  spreading,  and  will  serve  as  slides  for  the 


MATS   AXD    SHUTTERS.  IGl 

sash.  If  a  strip  of  one-inch  board  is  fastened  to  tho 
middle  of  the  upper  side  of  eacli  cross  hearer  it  will  ser\'c 
to  strengthen  it,  and  to  hold  the  sash  in  place.  Another 
method  of  ventilating  the  bed  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  85. 
For  the  purpose  of  retaining  the  heat  in  cold  weather, 
straw  mats  and  wooden  shutters  are  desirable. 

MATS   AND   SHUTTERS. 

For  the  mats,  a  supply  of  long  rye  straw,  tarred 
rope,  and  strong  linen  twine  are  necessary.  There  are 
various  ways  of  making  the  mats,  one  of  the  simplest 
being  upon  a  frame  of  two  by  four  inch  lumber  of  the 
same  size  as  the  mats.  With  long  straw,  a  mat  six  and 
one-half  feet  square  can  be  made,  but  the  usual  size  is 


PIG.    86.       HOTBED    SHUTTER. 

about  four,  or  five,  by  seven  feet.  The  tarred  rope  is 
stretched  lengthwise  of  the  frame,  so  as  to  bring  the 
strands  one  foot  apart  and  six  inches  from  each  side,  and 
fastened  to  stout  pegs.  For  a  mat  six  and  one-half  feet 
square,  the  straw  should  be,  at  least,  four  feet  long. 
Bundles  of  straw  as  large  as  can  be  enclosed  by  the 
thumb  and  middle  finger,  are  placed  on  the  frame,  with 
the  butts  even  with  the  sides,  and  are  tied  in  place  with 
stout  hemp  twine.  The  bundles  thus  lap  in  the  center 
about  two  feet,  and  the  ends  will  keep  the  center  even 
with  the  sides.  With  straw  still  longer  than  this,  a  mat 
about  five  feet  wide  can  be  made  without  any  laps  of  the 
straw,  by  placing  tlie  butts  alternately  to  the  riglit  and 
11 


162 


GREEKHOUSE    COKSTRTICTION'. 


left,  one  length  of  straw  reaching  across  the  mat.  If 
the  mats  are  kept  covered  with  the  shutters,  and  are 
stored  where  the  mice  cannot  destroy  them,  they  can  be 
used  for  many  years. 

The  shutters,  Fig.  86,  for  covering  the  mats  should 
be  six  and  one-half  feet  long,  and  three  feet  to  three  feet 
and  six  inches  wide.  Made  of  half-inch  matched  lum- 
ber, with  cleats  at  fhe  ends  and  across  the  middle,  and 
with  handles,  they  form  a  useful  addition  to  one's 
equipment. 

HOTBED    TARD. 

Unless  they  can  be  placed  where  they  will  be  shel- 
tered by  buildings,  a  tight  board  fence  upon  the  north. 


; 
t 

3 

mil  1 1 1 1  M  1 1  1 1  M  1 1  1      1 1  M  1 1  1 1 1  M  1  1  M  mil 

mil  1 1 1 1 1 1 1 II 1 II 1 1 1    II 1 1 1 1 1 1 II 1 1 1 1 1  iiiii 

mil  1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1    1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 II 1 1 1 1  mil 

mil  1 1 1 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 II II    1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1  mil 

c 

mil  1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1    1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1  mil 

lllll  M  1  M  II  II  M  II  II       M  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  II  1  IIIII 

IIIII  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1       1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  lllll 

lllll  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1       1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  lllll 

FIG.    87.       HOTBED   TARD. 

east  and  west  sides  will  be  desirable.  Tlie  land  should, 
if  possible,  slope  slightly  to  the  south,  and .  the  rows  of 
frames  should  be  regularly  arranged.  In  Fig.  87  will  be 
seen  a  convenient  arrangement  for  a  frame  yard.  There 
is  an  oiDportunity  for  a  team  to  pass  entirely  around  the 
frames,  and  through  the  center  in  either  direction. 
There  should  be  a  hydrant  for  furnishing  water  at  the 


MAKIKG    THE   BED.  1G3 

center  of  the  plat,  A,  or  at  some  other  convenient  point. 
1,  2  and  3  arc  sheds  for  the  storage  of  sasli,  slnitters,  etc. 
If  one  has  but  a  few  frames  it  will  be  desirable  to  have 
them  seven  feet  apart,  which  will  give  space  for  the  sash 
to  be  drawn  off,  and  will  allow  a  cart  to  dump  its  load 
of  manure  or  soil  between  the  frames.  AVIien  a  large 
number  of  frames  are  used,  and  especially  if  the  land  is 
valuable,  it  will  be  better  to  have  the  rows  from  two  to 
three  feet  apart.  The  shutters  and  sash  can  then  be 
placed  in  i)iles  at  the  end  of  the  rows.  If  only  a  small 
amount  of  ventilation  is  needed,  the  sash  can  be  slipped 
up  or  down,  or  can  be  raised,  as  seen  in  Fig.  85. 

MAKING    THE    BED. 

For  a  winter  hotbed,  the  heating  material  should 
have  a  depth  of  from  two  to  two  and  a  half  feet,  while 
in  the  spring  one-half  that  depth  will  answer.  An  exca- 
vation two  feet  wider  than  the  frame,  and  of  the  required 
depth,  should  be  made,  in  order  to  prevent  the  frost 
from  working  into  the  bed,  although  for  spring  use  the 
same  result  may  be  effected  by  piling  fresh  manure  about 
the  frame.  The  heating  material  is  generally  fresh 
horse  manure.  Unless  it  contains  a  liberal  amount  of 
straw,  or  similar  bedding  material,  something  of  the 
kind  should  be  added,  so  that  it  will  not  be  more  than 
one-half  of  clear  manure.  Oak  leaves,  also,  make  a 
good  material  to  mix  with  the  manure,  as  they  will  hin- 
der, and,  consequently,  prolong  the  decomposition  of 
the  mass,  thus  giving  an  even  heat. 

About  two  weeks  before  the  l)ed  is  wanted,  the 
material  should  be  placed  in  a  pile  about  eight  feet  wide 
and  four  feet  high,  with  a  flat  top  and  vertical  sides. 
The  pile  should  preferably  be  made  in  a  shed  or  inauure 
cellar,  but  may  be  in  the  open  air,  or  even  in  the  frame 
itself.  In  three  or  four  days  it  will  be  fermenting  rap- 
idly, and  should  then  be  forked  over,  throwing  the  out- 


164 


GREENHOUSE    CONSTRUCTION. 


side  portion  to  the  center ;  at  the  end  of  two  or  three 
days  the  jiile  should  be  well  warmed  up,  and  the  bed 
may  be  made,  or,  if  it  has  not  warmed  evenly,  it  should 
be  again  turned  over,  before  being  jDlaced  in  the  frame. 
In  -working  over  the  pile,  all  coarse  lumps  should  be 
broken  up,  and  the  heap  should  be  left  as  light  as  possi- 
ble, to  encourage  fermentation.  If,  when  the  material 
is  placed  in  the  frame,  it  is  quite  warm,  it  may  be  lev- 
eled oif  and  firmly  tramped  down,  filling  it  up  to  within 
six  or  eight  inches  of  the  glass.  Should  it  not  be  as 
warm  as  is  desirable,  it  may  be  best  to  delay  the  final 
tramping  for  a  couj)le  of  days. 

The  bed  is  now  ready  for  the  soil,  wiiich  should  be 
a  rich  compost.     For  many  crops  the  soil  and  manure 


FIG.    88.       COLD    PIT. 

from  an  old  bed  will  answer.  The  best  materials  would 
be  equal  parts  of  pasture  sods,  decomposed  manure,  gar- 
den soil,  and  sand  enough  to  make  a  light  mass  and  pre- 
vent baking,  spread  over  the  manure  to  the  depth  of  six 
inches.  For  two  or  three  days  there  will  be  a  violent 
heat  in  the  bed,  but  this  will  soon  go  down  and  the  bed 
will  be  ready  for  seeds  or  plants.     If,  while  preparing 


DETACHED   COLD    FKAMES    AND    PITS.  1G5 

the  manure  for  the  bed,  it  is  found  to  l)e  dry,  it  should 
be  moistened  with  tepid  water  from  a  Avatcring  can. 

In  caring  for  hotbeds,  the  mats  and  sluitters  should 
be  taken  off  on  pleasant  days,  as  soon  as  tiie  sun  is  well 
up,  and  on  bright  days  the  beds  should  be  given  air 
about  the  same  as  in  a  forcing  house.  The  beds  should 
be  closed,  at  least,  two  hours  before  sunset,  and  the  cov- 
ers should  be  put  on  as  the  sun  goes  down. 

While  hotbeds  are  a  great  convenience  after  the  first 
of  March,  they  are  each  year  becoming  less  used  for  the 
growing  of  winter  crops.  The  cost  of  forcing  houses  is 
but  little  more,  and  they  are  much  more  convenient  and 
in  every  way  more  satisfactory. 

DETACHED    COLD    FRAMES   AND   PITS. 

The  most  common  form  of  cold  frame  (a  hotbed 
frame  and  sash  without  any  heating  material)  is  a  low 
structure  used  to  carry  through  the  winter  pansies,  vio- 
lets and  other  half  hardy  plants,  or  for  the  growing  of 
vegetables  and  bedding  plants,  before  the  danger  of  frost 
in  the  open  ground  is  over  in  the  spring.  For  many 
purposes,  however,  a  deep  frame  or  pit  is  desirable.  In 
Fig.  88  is  a  cross  section  of  such  a  structure.  If  made 
eight  feet  wide  inside,  five  or  six  feet  deep  at  the  plate, 
and  of  any  length,  it  will  be  found  one  of  the  most  use- 
ful ''rooms"  in  a  greenhouse  establishment.  The  walls 
may  be  of  wood,  brick,  stone  or  concrete,  and  the  top 
should  consist  of  j^lates,  firmly  anchored  to  the  Avails,  a 
ridge,  rafters  and  hotbed  sash.  For  a  pit  eight  feet 
wide  inside,  the  sash  on  one  side  should  be  about  six  by 
three  feet,  and  on  the  other  four  by  three  feet,  or  if  ten 
feet  wide,  an  even  span  roof  can  be  made,  with  sash  six 
by  three  feet  on  both  sides.  With  mats  and  shutters, 
frost  can  be  kept  out  from  a  deej)  pit  of  this  kind.  As 
in  Fig.  88,  a  double  use  can  be  made  of  such  a  frame. 
By  placing  a  plank  floor  about  one  foot  below  the  plate. 


X66  GBEEKHOUSE   CONSTRUOTIOlf. 

the  upper  portion  can  be  used  for  violets  and  'similar 
plants,  while  bulbs  for  winter  forcing  can  be  plunged  in 
sand  upon  the  bottom.  It  can  also  be  used  for  winter- 
ing a  great  variety  of  plants.  In  Fig.  10  can  be  seen  a 
very  convenient  frame  against  a  greenhouse  wall.  By 
moans  of  slides  in  the  wall,  a  sufficient  supply  of  heat 
can  be  admitted  from  the  greenhouse  if  desired. 


OHAPTEK  XXVII. 

CONSERVATORIES. 

As  usually  applied,  this  term  refers  to  small  green- 
houses attached  to  dwellings,  in  which,  although  j)lants 
may  be  grown,  the  real  object  is  to  have  plants  shown 
that  are  attractive,  either  in  foliage  or  flower.  In  a 
strict  sense,  however,  a  conservatory  is  a  structure  in 
which  plants  that  have  been  developed  in  narrow  and 
comparatively  low  greenhouses,  known  as  growing  houses, 
are  shown  during  their  period  of  flower.  They  may  be 
attached  to  the  dwelling  or  other  building.  Fig.  89,  but 
are  generally  detached  buildings  surrounded  by  the  vari- 
ous growing  houses.  In  another  chapter  descriptions 
will  be  found  of  various  small  structures  adapted  to  the 
wants  of  amateurs,  but  at  present  we  shall  consider  vari- 
ous combinations  of  glass  structures,  consisting  of  con- 
servatories or  show  houses,  with  the  necessary  subsidiary 
growing  houses,  such  as  would  require  the  care  of  a  i)ro- 
fessional  gardener. 

In  addition  to  the  large  number  of  public  institu- 
ti9ns  where  large  conservatories  are  desirable,  the  num- 
ber of  private  individuals  Avho  have  the  means  to  erect 
and  maintain  establishments  of  this  kind,  and  taste  to 
appreciate  the  beauties  of  the  flowers  and  plants  grown 


CONSERVATORIEa. 


107 


168  GREENHOUSE     CONSTRUCTION. 

in  them,  is  coustiintly  increasing.  The  use  of  plants  for 
purposes  of  lawn  and  house  decoration,  and  of  flowers 
for  embellishing  the  table,  the  parlor,  or  the  person,  has 
become  so  common  that  where  one  can  afford  it,  the  pos- 
session of  a  greenhouse  lias  become  very  desirable,  and 
almost  a  necessity  in  some  cases. 

Conservatories,  in  2'*i'oportion  to  their  length,  are 
much  wider  and  higher  than  the  growing  houses,  and, 
in  fact,  there  is  practically  no  limit  to  their  size,  except 
the  money  to  erect  and  maintain,  them.  They  are  usu- 
ally erected  upon  a  brick  or  stone  foundation  about  two 
and  one-half  feet  high,  and  with  vertical  glass  sides 
above  this  to  the  height  of  from  six  to  ten  feet  above  the 
masonry.  The  width  of  the  house  may  vary  from  twenty 
or  twenty-five  feet,  to  eighty  or  one  hundred  and  even 
more,  and  the  length  may  be  as  desired.  For  narrow 
ho^^ses,  up  to  a  width  of  thirty  feet,  the  even  span  roof 
with  straight  rafters,  continuous  from  ridge  to  plate, 
will  be  the  least  expensive  ;  it  will  grow  the  best  plants, 
and,  if  made  in  proportion,  will  not  be  displeasing. 

For  a  house  of  this  kind  the  slope  of  the  roof  should 
be  about  thirty-five  degrees.  Twenty  years  ago  it  was 
the  custom  to  surmount  conservatories  of  this  kind  with 
a  lantern  top  about  six  feet  wide,  Fig.  90,  two  feet  high 
at  the  plate,  and  three  at  the  ridge,  running  the  length 
of  the  house.  These  had  ventilators  in  tlie  side  walls, 
which  were  desirable  in  summer,  but  during  the  winter 
they  added  greatly  to  the  consumption  of  fuel.  The 
lanterns  were  so  narrow  that  they  were  of  little  use, 
except  to  add,  in  a  slight  degree,  to  the  appearance  of 
the  house.  They  are  now  no  longer  used  except  upon 
very  wide  conservatories,  where  they  are  so  constructed, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  91,  that  they  add  from  five  to  ten  feet 
to  the  height  of  the  house,  and  are  of  such  a  width  that 
this  space  can  be  utilized  by  tall  plants.  The  straight 
sash  bars  can  also  be  used  in  wide  houses,  but  they  will 


CONSEUVATOKIES. 


169 


o 

IS 

§H 
^  td 

?g 

"A 

CO 

> 
H 
O 
W 
k! 


170 


GKEENHOUSE    CONSTRUCTION". 


have  a  barn-liko  appearance,  unless  the  roof  is  broken  by 
gables  and  secondary  slopes.  This  method  of  building 
greenhouses  has  many  things  in  its  favor,  that  are  wor- 
thy of  commendation.  It  is  in  the  wide  conservatoriea 
that  the  curvilinear  roofs  are  particularly  desirable.  In 
themselves  they  are  quite  ornamental,  and  they  moreover 


FIG.  91.     coxsERVATORY  (Section). 

form  a  convenient  method  of  arching  over  any  wide 
space,  as  shown  in  the  cross  section.  Fig.  91,  and  in 
perspective  in  Fig.  105. 

IRON   HOUSES. 

For  any  structure  of  this  kind,  wood  is  too  i^erish- 
able,  and  the  necessary  strength  could  only  be  secured 
by  the  use  of  a  heavy  framework.  Of  all  materials  at 
present  available,  architectural  iron  seems  best  adapted 
for  this  work,  and  all  sills,  posts,  rafters,  braces,  ridges, 
purlins  and  supports  should  be  of  this  material.  There 
seems  to  be  but  little  choice  between  cypress  and  metal 
sash  bars  for  large  conservatories,  aside  from  the  larger 


IRON   HOUSES. 


171 


173  GEEENHOUSE    COXSTKUCTION. 

exijense  that  must  be  incurred  for  the  latter.  If  the 
latter  are  used,  it  is  desirable  that  they  should  have  a 
steel  core,  as,  if  constructed  of  copper,  zinc,  or  galvan- 
ized iron,  they  are  likely  to  bend  and  crack  the  glass. 

The  first  cost  of  the  iron  roof  is  considerably  more 
than  for  cypress,  and,  in  order  to  be  lasting  and  free 
from  rust,  it  will  need  to  be  painted  fully  as  often.  A 
metallic  glazed  house  is  harder  to  heat  than  a  putty 
glazed  one,  and  after  a  year  or  two  is  likely  to  leak  heat 
from,  and  rain  into  the  house.  With  the  same  attention 
to  painting  and  repairing  a  wooden  roof  as  is  necessary 
with  an  iron  one,  the  house  will  be  tighter,  easier  to 
heat,  there  will  be  less  drip,  and  it  will  be  in  a  good 
state  of  preservation  at  the  end  of  twenty-five  or  thirty 
years.  Although  practically  indestructible,  the  glazing 
strips  used  in  the  iron  houses  will  have  become  so  bent 
and  out  of  shape  that  many  of  them  will  require  renewal 
even  before  this  time. 

Il^TERIOR   ARRANGEMENT   OF   THE   CONSERVATORY. 

In  arranging  the  interior  of  the  conservatory,  it  will 
be  well  to  use  all  of  the  center  of  the  building  for  large 
j)alms,  bananas,  bamboos,  tree  ferns,  and  other  tall- 
growing  plants.  Fig.  92.  They  should  be  planted  in 
the  ground,  and  so  arranged  as  to  jn-esent  as  natural  an 
appearance  as  possible.  The  walks  should  be  of  gener- 
ous widths,  and  so  arranged  as  to  bring  into  view  all 
parts  of  the  house.  The  portion  of  the  house  next  to 
the  walls  may  be  arranged  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
center,  but  it  is  desirable  to  have  a  portion  of  it,  at  least, 
supjilied  with  tables,  upon  which  plants  in  flower  may 
be  displayed.  If  they  are  combined  with  ferns  and 
ornamental-leaved  plants  the  effect  will  be  very  pleasing. 
This  is  really  the  jDurpose  of  a  conservatory,  since,  as  is 
usually  the  case,  if  it  is  kept  at  a  temperature  of  fifty- 
five  to  sixty  degrees  when  plants  are  brought  in  from 


INTERIOR  ARRANGEMENT  OF  CONSERVATORY.  173 


174 


GREENHOUaH    COKSTBUCTION. 


the  stove  and  other  warm  rooms,  the  flowers  will  be  con- 
served, and  Avill  last  must  longer  than  if  kept  at  a  high 
temjierature.  Frequently  the  large  rooms  are  used  for 
growing  collections  of  the  more  ornamental  ^^alms,  and 
are  known  as  palm  houses.  Fig.  93. 

THE   STOVE   HOUSE. 

As  first  used,  the  term  ''stove"  was  applied  to 
greenhouses  in  which  artificial  heat  was  supplied  by 
means  of  stoves.  As  is  frequently  the  ease,  the  name  of 
the  object  became  attached  to  the  building  in  which  it 
was  used,  and  a  stove  house  to-day  is  merely  a  hothouse 
with  a  temperature  of  sixty-five  to  seventy-five  degrees. 
As  a  rule,  these  are  considerably  narrower  and  lower 
than  the  conservatories  or  j)alm  houses.     They  are  sel- 


FiG.  94.      STOVE  ROOM  {SecUoii). 

dom  wider  than  twenty  or  twenty-five  feet,  and  from 
twelve  to  twenty  feet  in  height.  If  built  upon  a  ma- 
sonry foundation  two  and  a  half  feet  high,  the  vertical 
side  walls  are  usually  about  two  and  one-half  or  three 
feet  high,  with  side  ventilators.  The  roof  has  an  angle 
of  thirty  to  thirty-five  degrees,  with  ventilators  on  each 
side  of  the  ridge. 

This  house  should  have  side  tables,  and  a  wide  cen- 
ter table  may  be  used,  or,  if  the  plants  are  large,  they 


STOVE   AND    OUCniD   HOUSES. 


17^ 


176  GEEENHOUSE    CONSTKUCTIO^S". 

may  be  planted  or  plunged.  In  Fig.  94  is  seen  a  cross 
section  of  a  stove  house  with  a  curvilinear  roof,  while  in 
Fig.  95  an  interior  view  of  the  same  house  is  seen. 

When  one  does  not  desire  the  curvilinear  roof  for 
itself,  a  stove  room  built  with  straight  sash  bars  will 
give  fully  as  good  results.  A  very  pleasing  efEect  may 
be  produced  Avhen  stove  plants  and  orchids  are  grown  in 
the  same  room.  So  far  as  the  construction  of  the  house 
itself  is  concerned,  a  stove  house  does  not  differ  from 
others  of  the  same  general  style,  except  that  to  obtain 
the  i:)ro]ier  temperature,  the  radiating  surface,  provided 
in  the  steam  or  water  pipes,  must  be  considerably  larger 
than  for  most  houses. 

COOL   HOUSES. 

In  all  establishments  of  this  kind  there  should  be, 
at  least,  one  house  in  which  a  maximum  night  temjjera- 
ture  of  fifty  degrees  is  maintained,  for  such  jjlants  as 
do  not  require  the  stove  room  heat.  In  a  general  way, 
their  construction  would  be  the  same  as  for  a  stove 
house,  although,  as  a  rule,  a  narrower  house  will  answer. 
Where  many  bedding  plants  are  used  for  lawn  decoration 
in  the  summer,  a  similar  house  will  be  required  for  that 
pur])ose.  If  desired,  a  jjortion  of  this  room  could  be 
used  for  propagating  purposes,  or  a  narrow  house  could 
be  erected  especially  for  propagation. 

When  large  palms,  and  other  similar  plants,  are 
used  upon  the  lawns  during  the  summer,  they  should  be 
stored  in  a  cool  house,  and  if  no  other  place  is  at  hand, 
a  lean-to  against  a  shed  or  other  building  can  be  cheaply 
erected,  and  a  pro2')er  temperature  can  be  maintained  at 
very  little  expense.  For  many  of  the  broad-leaved  ever- 
greens, that  should  be  kept  in  a  dormant  condition  dur- 
ing the  winter,  a  north  side  lean-to  house  is  quite 
desirable. 


OKCHID   HOUSES. 


177 


ORCHID    HOUSES. 

As  indicated  above,  orchids  can  be  grown  in  stove 
houses  with  other  plants,  and  for  many  amateurs  no 
special  orchid  house  need  be  provided,  but  when  the  col- 
lections are  large,  it  will  be  well  to  have  houses  set  apart 
for  their  use.  It  is  generally  admitted  that  no  form  of 
construction  is  better  adapted  for  orchid  culture  than 
the  span  roof  house.  Many  growers  have  made  the  mis- 
take of  erecting  high  and  wide  houses,  while,  had  they 
confined  themselves  to  structures  not  over  sixteen  or 
eighteen  feet  wide,  and  ten  or  eleven  feet  high,  they 


FIG.  96.     ORCHID  HOUSE  (SecHon). 

would  have  obtained  more  satisfactory  results,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  loss  in  cost  of  construction  and  fuel. 

The  orchids  are  divided  into  three  groui)s, — stove, 
intermediate  and  cool  house, — from  the  temperature  in 
which  they  thrive  best,  and  houses  should  be  provided 
accordingly.  If  an  orchid  house  sixty  to  seventy-five 
feet  long  is  erected,  it  can  be  divided  by  cross  partitions 
into  three  rooms,  which  can  be  adapied  for  the  differ- 
ent classes  of  orchids  by  a  proper  adjustment  of  the 
heating  pipes. 

For  small  j^lants,  a  house  only  twelve  feet  wide  and 
eight  feet  high  at  the  ridge  will  be  even  easier  to  erect 
and  heat,  but  the  moisture  and  temperature  cannot  be 
13 


178  GREENHOUSE    CONSTRUCTION. 

controlled  as  well  as  in  a  wider  house.  For  some  of  the 
cool  house  orchids,  a  lean-to  house  answers  quite  well, 
and  where  Cattleyas  are  grown  in  large  quantities  for 
market,  the  three-quarter  span  house  will  give  good 
satisfaction. 

In  Fig.  96  will  be  found  a  section  of  an  orchid 
house,  showing  the  arrangement  of  the  tables  and  venti- 
lators. At  least  two  feet  of  the  side  walls  should  be 
above  the  masonry,  giving  sixteen  or  eighteen  inches  of 
glass.  There  should  be  two  lines  of  ventilators  at  the 
ridge,  and  some  means  of  bottom  ventilation  should  also 
be  provided.  In  the  intermediate  and  Mexican  houses 
the  vertical  sash  in  the  side  walls  may  be  used  as  venti- 
lators, but  in  the  stove  or  East  Indian  house  all  drafts 
of  cold  air  are  injurious,  and  it  is  preferable  to  admit 
the  fresh  air  under  the  tables. 

All  orchids  require  very  careful  shading  during  the 
summer.  A  thin  permanent  shading  may  be  given  in 
the  spring,  but  the  main  reliance  should  be  upon  blinds 
or  curtains  of  canvas  or  netting,  that  can  be  drawn  uj) 
except  while  the  sun  is  shining  bright.  In  dull  weather 
a  thick  permanent  shading  would  be  injurious  to  the 
plants. 

GRAPERIES. 

The  large,  choice  varieties  of  European  grapes  are 
not  hardy  in  our  latitude,  and  some  protection  must  be 
provided  for  them  if  we  are  to  grow  them.  Many  varie- 
ties can  be  grown  in  a  glass  house  even  without  heat, 
and  to  such  a  building  the  name  of  "cold  grapery"  has 
been  given.  Some  varieties  require  heat  to  bring  them 
to  maturity,  while  others  can  be  brought  in  quite  early 
if  started  in  winter  with  artificial  heat,  and  for  such 
liurposes  the  "hot  grapery"  is  used,  although  the  name 
"forcing  grapery"  is  also  applied  to  it. 

While  almost  any  greenhouse  will  answer  for  grow- 
ing grapes,  experience  has  shown  that  certain  forms  are 


GRAPERIES. 


179 


better  than  others.  For  the  forcing  grapery  nothing 
seems  to  be  better  than  the  narrow  lean-to  or  two-third 
span,  snch  as  is  seen  in  cross  section  in  Fig.  97,  as  it 
fnrnislies  a  warm  back  wall  against  which  the  vines  can 
be  trained,  and,  like  all  lean-to  houses,  it  is  cheaply  con- 
structed and  heated.  The  three-quarter  si)an  houses  arc 
also  excellent  for  either  forcing  or  cold  graperies,  but 
unless  one  has  walls  that  can  be  used  for  this  purpose  it 
will  be  preferable  to  build   span  roof  houses  running 


FIG.    97.       FORCI^S'G   GRAPERY    (SecHon). 

north  and  south,  except  when  grapes  are  to  be  forced  in 
the  winter.  The  span  roof  house,  Fig.  98,  encloses  a 
larger  body  of  air  than  either  of  the  other  houses,  and  it 
will  be  easier  to  regulate  the  temperature  and  the  moist- 
ure in  such  a  house  than  in  a  narrow  one.  In  addition 
to  the  above  reason  the  wide  houses  are  preferable,  as 
they  have  longer  rafters  and  afford  more  space  for  train- 
ing the  vines. 

The  curvilinear  roof  is  frequently  used  for  vineries, 
and  in  Fig.  99  is  shown  a  section  of  a  curvilinear  house. 
They  give  somewhat  longer  rafters  for  training  tlie  viues, 
but  they  have  no  other  advantage,  except,  pcrha])s,  in 


180 


GREENHOUSE    CONSTEUCTION. 


appearance,   and    tliis  will   not   counterbalance   the  in- 
creased cost. 

The  even  span  greenhouses,  with  straight  sash  bars, 
seem  to  be  the  favorite  form  for  graperies.  In  their 
general  construction  they  do  not  differ  from  even  span 
structures  of  similar  dimensions  used  for  other  purposes, 
and  for  the  details  of  construction  reference  is  made  to 
Chapters  V  and  VI.  There  are,  however,  certain  points 
that  should  be  considered  in  erecting  a  grapery.     If  the 


FIG.  98.     EVEisr  SPAN"  GRAPERY  (Section). 

house  is  a  wide  one,  the  slope  of  the  roof  may  be  less 
than  if  it  is  comparatively  narrow,  and  thirty-five,  or 
even  thirty  degrees  pitch  will  be  sufficient  in  one  case, 
while  forty,  or  perhaps  forty-five  degrees,  may  be  desir- 
able in  another. 

In  choosing  a  site  for  a  grapery,  it  is  well  to  have  it 
somewhat  sheltered  from  the  north  and  east,  and,  by  all 
means,  it  should  be  well  drained  to  the  depth  of  three 
feet,  that  the  border  may  not  become  wet.  The  situa- 
tion should  be  such  that  it  will  not  be  affected  either  by 
the  shade,  or  the  roots  of  large  trees,  which  might  get 
into  the  border  and  steal  from  the  vines. 


CiKAi'DlHES. 


181 


The  Avail  of  brick  or  stone,  if  cither  he  used,  .sliould 
extend  for  a  foot  or  so  above  the  level,  and  if  a  iM)ili()ii 
of  the  border  is  to  be  ou  each  side  of  the  Avail,  arches 
should  be  left  in  the  Avail  at  intervals  of  about  three  feet, 
Avith  openings  at  least  one  foot  stinare  through  Avhich 
the  roots  can  make  their  way.  Ui)on  this  Avail  there 
should  be  one  of  Avood  two  feet  high,  with  continuous 
side  ventilation  (see  Fig.  98).  If  it  is  desired  to  make  the 
first  cost  as  Ioav  as  possible,  the  side  Avails  may  l)e  built 
of  A\'ood,  Avithout  the  use  of  a  stone  fouiulation,  but  in 
the  damp  border  it  Avill  not  be  very  durable,  and  the 
form  of  wall  described  above   is   preferable.     The  roof 


__n 


FIG.    99.       CURVILINEAR    GRAPEUY    {SccfVDl). 

should  be  somewhat  stiffer  than  for  an  ordinary  green- 
house, but  it  need. not  be  different  in  construction  from 
those  described  in  Chapter  VI.  There  should  be,  at 
least,  one  line  of  ventilation  at  the  ridge,  and  ])referably 
two  in  a  Avide  house. 

While  steam  could  be  used  for  heating  vineries,  it 
has  not  to  any. extent,  hot  Avater  being  relied  on  for  the 
most  part.  The  flue  is  not  satisfactory  and  is  but  little 
used.  In  arran'ging  the  pii)es,  it  is  best  to  have  them 
three  or  four  feet  from  the  vines,  as,  if  in  close  iiroxim- 
ity,  they  might  unduly  dry  out  the  border,  and  would 
tend  to"  invite  the  development  of  the  red  spider.     The 


182  GKEjiNHOUSE    COISISTRUCTION. 

radiation  should  be  ample,  and  so  suj^plied  with  valves 
that  the  amount  of  heat  furnished  can  he  regulated  at 
pleasure. 

Some  arrangement  should  he  made  for  training  the 
vines,  and  perhajjs  the  simplest  form  of  trellis  will  be 
made  of  No.  12  galvanized  wires,  arranged  one  foot 
apart,  and  suspended  about  fifteen  inches  below  the 
sash  bars  (Figs.  97  and  98). 

ORCHARD   HOUSES. 

In  many  sections  of  the  country  some  of  our 
choicest  fruits,  such  as  peaches,  nectarines,  apricots, 
sweet  cherries,  etc.,  cannot  be  grown  in  the  open  air, 
and  if  their  cultivation  is  attempted  it  must  be  under 
glass.  In  Europe  fruit  houses  are  very  common,  and 
for  many  years  have  formed  an  imj)ortant  part  of  the 
greenhouses,  not  only  wpon  the  large  estates,  but  in  con- 
nection with  the  cottages  of  the  middle  classes.  On  this 
side  of  the  Atlantic,  the  ease  with  which  these  crops  can 
be  grown  in  favorable  localities,  and  the  abundance  and 
cheapness  of  the  sub-tropical  fruits  from  Florida  and 
California,  have  united  to  restrict  the  use  of  orchard 
houses.  Wliile  it  is  doubtful  if  they  can  be  made  profit- 
able as  commercial  ventures,  except  under  unusually 
favorable  conditions,  many  persons  find  them  very  desir- 
able to  furnish  a  supply  of  fresh  fruit  out  of  season  for 
their  own  tables. 

In  their  construction,  orchard  houses  do  not  greatly 
differ  from  graperies.  The  walls  are  built  in  the  same 
manner,  but  should  have  a  height  of  six  feet,  at  least 
one-half  of  which  should  be  of  glass.  They  may  be 
constructed  of  wood  or  iron  posts  and  boards  up  to  a 
height  of  two  feet,  or  they  may  have  a  masonry  founda- 
tion with  a  brick  Avail  above.  The  glass  in  the  side  walls 
should  be  from  three  to  four  feet  high,  and  at  least  one- 
half  of  it  should  be  in  the  form  of  ventilators,  hinged  at 


ORCHARD   noUSES.  183 

the  top.  The  roof  may  be  eitlier  of  movahle  sjisli  or 
of  fixed  sash  bars,  tlie  latter  being  preferable  if  tlie  house 
is  to  be  a  permanent  one.  In  this  case  iron  posts,  raf- 
ters, purlins  and  ridge,  with  cypress  sash  bars,  can  be 
used  to  advantage.  With  tlie  high  walls,  to  give  room 
for  the  trees  at  the  sides  of  the  iiouscs,  it  will  be  desir- 
able, particularly  if  the  house  is  a  wide  one,  to  give  the 
roof  a  comparatively  low  i)itch,  in  order  to  bring  the 
glass  down  as  near  as  i)ossible  to  the  plants  in  the  center 
of  the  house.  A  slope  of  twenty-six  degrees  will  answer, 
and  if  the  house  is  more  than  twenty-five  feet  wide, 
twenty  degrees  will  be  preferable.  Ample  means  of 
ventilating  the  houses  should  be  provided.  In  addition 
to  the  row  under  the  plate,  there  should  be  one,  in  nar- 
row houses,  and  two  in  wide  ones,  at  the  ridge,  and  doors 
or  ventilators  in  the  ends  are  also  desirable. 

While  any  form  of  house,  lean-to,  even  span,  or 
three-quarter  span,  curvilinear  or  straight,  may  be  used, 
the  wide  even  span  will  be  most  satisfactory,  as  the  light 
will  be  more  evenly  distributed  than  in  either  of  the 
other  forms,  and  the  temperature  and  moisture  will  be 
easier  to  regulate  than  in  a  lean-to  or  in  a  narrovv  house. 
While  houses  not  over  twelve  or  fifteen  feet  wide  will  give 
fair  results,  a  width  of  eighteen,  twenty,  or,  better  yet, 
twenty-five  feet  Avill  be  preferable.  The  lean-to  will  be 
a  cheap  form  to  erect,  Avhen  it  can  be  built  against  the 
south  wall  of  a  building,  but  when  this  cannot  be  done, 
an  even  span  house  wall  cost  no  more,  and  will  be  much 
more  satisfactory.  With  a  lean-to  construction,  a  house 
about  fifteen  feet  wide  can  be  built  when  the  south  wall 
is  five  or  six  feet  high  and  the  north  one  fourteen  or  fif- 
teen feet.  While  not  really  desirable,  a  narrow  lean-to 
house  six  to  ten  feet  wide  can  be  used.  The  construc- 
tion would  be  about  the  same  as  that  of  a  narrow  lean-to 
grapery.  In  this  kind  of  a  house  the  trees  are  generally 
trained  upon  the  north  wall.     With  proper  care  in  reg- 


184  GREENHOUSE    CONSTIlUCTIOlf. 

ulating  tlie  heat  and  moisture,  and  in  vciitilatiug,  fair 
results  will  be  obtained.  If  to  be  used  as  fruit-forcing 
houses,  the  three-quarter  sjjan  house,  with  the  long  slope 
either  to  the  north  or  to  the  south,  can  also  be  used. 

While  some  growers  plant  the  trees  in  the  border, 
others  grow  them  in  pots  or  boxes,  and  are  then  able  to 
pack  the  trees  aw^ay,  and  use  the  house  for  other  pur- 
poses until  it  is  necessary  to  start  the  trees  in  the  winter 
or  spring.  In  narrow  houses  there  is  only  one  walk, 
the  trees  being  arranged  upon  either  side,  but  in  wide 
span  roof  liouses,  although  this  arrangement  is  often 
made,  it  is  preferable  to  have  two  walks,  one  on  eitlier 
side,  about  four  feet  from  the  walls,  thus  securing  the 
peak  of  the  roof  as  an  additional  space  for  tall  trees. 
When  there  is  a  walk  in  the  center  of  houses  over  fifteen 
feet  wide,  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  narrow  walk  upon 
either  side,  for  convenience  in  watering  and  caring  for 
the  plants. 

FIRE    HEAT. 

Even  when  only  used  as  growing  houses,  it  is  desir- 
able to  have  the  houses  provided  with  heating  apparatus. 
While  dormant  it  frequently  happens  that  the  tempera- 
ture may  drop  so  low  that  the  buds  will  be  injured, 
since,  as  a  rule,  the  buds  are  not  as  well  ripened  as  when 
grown  in  the  ojDen  air,  and  will  be  more  susceptible  to 
cold.  It  is  after  the  buds  start,  however,  that  the  dan- 
ger of  injury  by  cold  is  greatest,  as,  if  the  temperature 
falls  below  the  freezing  point  while  the  trees  are  in 
bloom,  the  crop  will  be  lost  and  the  trees  greatly  injured. 

Although  steam  or  hot  air  flues  may  be  used  for 
heating,  hot  water  will  be  found  more  satisfactory.  The 
piping  should  be  sufficient  to  keep  the  tenfperature  of 
the  house  at  forty-five  degrees  in  the  coldest  weather 
that  is  likely  to  occur  after  the  trees  are  started.  If 
peaches  or  other  fruits  are  to  be  forced,  they  should  bo 


AKKANGEMENT  OF  GREENHOUSES.        185 

started  as  soon  as  Marcli  1,  and  tlic  forcing  may  com- 
mence as  early  as  January.  In  the  forcing  house  a  tem- 
perature as  high  as  fifty  or  fifty-five  degrees  at  niglit  is 
necessary  for  the  best  results,  atid  in  estimating  the  radi- 
ation this  should  be  kept  in  mind. 


CHAPTER  XXYIII. 

THE  ARRANGEMENT  OF  GREENHOUSES. 

When  a  large  number  of  houses  that  are  used  for 
different  purposes  are  to  be  combined,  considerable  skill 
is  necessary  in  order  to  secure  the  best  results.  The 
arrangement  depends  largely  upon  the  kind  of  houses, 
as  well  as  their  size  and  shape,  and  as  there  are,  at  least, 
ten  or  a  dozen  houses  that  go  to  make  up  a  complete 
plant,  in  the  very  selection  of  the  houses  for  the  estab- 
lishment there  would  be  opportunity  for  hundreds,  and 
even  thousands,  of  combinations.  We  have  outlined 
above  the  structural  peculiarities  of  seven  or  eight  of  the 
more  important  houses,  and  have  elsewhere  described 
the  rose  house,  propagating  liouse,  forcing  house,  etc., 
and  now  offer  for  consideration  perspective  views  and 
ground  plans  of  greenhouse  establishments,  designed  by 
the  leading  horticultural  architects  and  builders  of  the 
country. 

The  first  illustration,  Fig.  100,  shows  a  part  of  tlie 
greenhouses  at  the  Michigan  Agricultural  College,  and 
in  Fig.  101  a  ground  plan  of  the  houses  is  shown.  Tiiis 
range  of  houses  is  not  an  elaborate  one,  but  it  is  well 
arranged,  and  in  connection  with  a  grapery  and  two 
forcing  houses  makes  a  fairly  complete  establishment. 
It  contains  a  palm  house,  or  conservatoi-y,  fifty-eight  by 
twenty-five  feet,  a  stove  room  twenty-five  feet  s<iuare. 


18G 


GREENHOUSE    CONSTRUCTION". 


,^.^*8| 


ARRANGEMENT   OF   GREENHOUSES. 


187 


a  cool  house  of  the  same  size,  a  rose  room  eighteen  by 
tweuty-five  feet,  two  ];)ropagating  (hot  and  cokl)  houses 
for  the  growing  of  bedding  phints,  eacli  twelve  by  fifty 
feet,  and  another  room  twenty-five  by  twenty-four  feet, 
that  is  used  as  occasion  demands.  The  workroom  is 
twenty-five  by  fifteen  feet,  and  is  over  the  heaters.  The 
gardener's  house,  as  shown  in  the  iUustratiun,  is  joined 
to  the  conservatory. 

The  houses  shown  in  perspective  Avere  erected  in 
1892,  by  Lord  &   Burnham  Co.,  and  are  of  their  iron 


FIG.  101.       GROUXD  I'LAX    OF   MICIIIGAX    AGKICULTUKAI 
COLLEGE   GREENHOUSES. 

frame  construction,  with  all  outside  work  of  cyiircss. 
The  walks  are  of  cement,  the  tables  of  angle  iron  witli 
gas  pipe  legs,  and  with  slate  tops  in  some  rooms  and  tile 
in  others.  The  houses  are  heated  by  a  Xo.  8  Furman 
hot  water  heater,  put  in  by  the  Ilerendccn  Manufactur- 
ing Co.,  of  Geneva,  N".  Y.  The  metliod  of  constrncling 
the  walls,  roof,  benches,  and  the  heating  coils  is  shown 


188 


GEEEiTHOUSE    CONSTKUCTIOJS". 


/  -vftBm,-t,TPU<, 


;J 


4»* 


ARRANGEMENT  OP  GREENHOUSES.        189 

in  Figs.  14,  17  and  2G,  uxcopfc  that  the  coils  hero  used 
are  double.  Each  room  is  piped  independently,  and 
eacli  coil  is  so  arranged  that  heat  can  bo  shut  olT  in 
\vhole  or  in  part  from  one  room  without  alTecting  the 
others.  In  the  rear  of  the  new  greenhouses,  as  sliown 
in  the  ground  plan,  are  three  other  liouses,  that  were 
erected  some  fifteen  years  ago.  They  are  entirely  con - 
Btructed  of  wood,  and  although  kept  well  painted,  are 
showing  signs  of  decay  in  some  places.  They  are  heated 
by  a  Spencc  hot  water  heater,  and  the  radiating  surface 
is  supplied  by  two-inch  flow  pipes  and  one  and  one-half 
inch  returns. 

Similar  in  construction,  in  many  respects,  to  the 
new  greenhouses  described  above,  are  those  shown  in 
Pig.  102.  The  principal  difference  is  in  the  form  of  the 
roof  of  the  conservatory,  which  is  curvilinear,  and  in 
the  arrangement  of  the  growing  houses.  Tliis  range 
was  erected  by  Thos.  W.  Weathered's  Sons,  at  New 
Dorp,  Staten  Island. 

A  larger  and  more  expensive  range  of  houses  is 
shown  in  Fig.  103.  The  ground  plan  of  these  houses  is 
illustrated  in  Fig.  104,  and  from  this  the  size  and  uses  of 
the  different  rooms  can  be  rscertained.  The  expense  of 
such  a  range  of  houses,  complete  with  iron  tables  and 
heating  apparatus,  will  not  be  far  from  ^16,000.  They 
were  erected  by  Hitchings  &  Co.,  of  N'ew  York  Cily. 
The  range,  as  will  be  seen,  consists  of  an  elongated  hex- 
agonal palm  house  with  a  curvilinear  roof.  The  side 
walls  are  quite  high,  and,  Avith  the  pitch  of  the  roof, 
affords  room  for  growing  quite  large  plants.  From  each 
>side  of  the  conservatory,  facing  east  and  west,  extend 
two  span  roof  growing  houses,  which  can  be  used  for 
stove  house,  cool  stove,  and  hot  and  cold  propagating 
houses,  or  houses  for  carnations  and  other  flowering 
plants.  At  the  end  of  the  north  houses  will  be  seen  a 
long  three-quarter  span  rose  house  and  a  large  work- 


190 


GEEElSrHOUSE   COXSTllUCTIOH. 


ARKAXGEMEXT   OF   (JKEHXriOUSES. 


rji 


19'Z 


GEEEifHOUSE   CONSTRUCTlOiT. 


ARRANGEMENT  OF   GREENHOUSES. 


103 


room.  The  method  of  construction  used  by  Ilitchincrs 
J  Co.  IS  not  particularly  different  from  the  one  used  by 
Loi-d  .N.  Burnham  Co.,  the  principal  difference  bein? 
that  the  former  generally  make  the  rafters  and  posts  iS 
separate  pieces,  which  are  clamped  together  by  an  iron 
bracket   at   the   plate,   and   use  iron   guitei-.s  and   eave 


ROSE  HOUSE     20-K97'  jl 


COOLHOUS£ 


FIG.    lOG.       GROUND     PLAN     OF    LORD     &     BURNHAM    CO. 
RANGE. 

troughs,  wliile  the  latter  use  wooden  gutters,  and  forge 
the  posts  and  rafters  from  one  piece. 

If  anything  more  elaborate  is  desired,  it  can  be 
found  in  the  range  shown  in  Fig.  105,  the  ground 
plan  of  which  can  be  seen  in  Fig.  lOG.  It  was  designed 
and  erected  by  Lord  &  Burnham  Co.,  at  Yonkers,  ^.  Y., 
and,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  illustrations,  consists  of  an 
13 


194 


GREENHOUSE    CONSTRUCTION. 


octagonal  curvilinear  conservatory  forty  by  forty  feet, 
which  is  shown  in  cross  section  in  !Fig.  91 ;  a  stove  or 
tropical  liouse,  Avith  a  curvilinear  roof,  twenty-two  by 
seventy-four  feet.  Fig.  94 :  a  cool  house  twenty-two  by 


FIG.  107.     FORCING  HOUSE  {SecUon). 

thirty-seyen  feet,  also  curvilinear;  a  span  roof  green- 
house twenty  by  sixty-seven  feet ;  a  forcing  house,  with 
a  three-quarter  span  roof,  eighteen  by  sixty-seven  feet. 


FIG.  108.     ROSE  HOUSE  {SecHoii). 

Fig.  107 ;  an  even  span  orchid  house.  Fig.  96,  eighteen 
by  forty-five  feet ;  a  three-quarter  span  rose  house.  Fig. 
108,  twenty  by  ninety-seven  feet ;  a  cool  vinery,  Fig.  99, 
twenty-two  by  sixty  feet,  and  a  hot  vinery,  both  cum- 


GLASS   STRUCTURES   FOR  AMATEURS.  195 

linear,  twenty-two  by  fifty-two  feet,  besides  a  jjuttiiig 
room  and  office. 

This  establishment  is  very  complete,  and  seems  to 
be  well  arranged.  If  plain  curvilinear  houses  are  de- 
sired, the  forms  shown  here  have  been  thorouglily  tested, 
and  have  been  found  quite  satisfactory. 


CHAPTER   XXIX. 

GLASS   STRUCTURES    FOR   AMATEURS. 

Many  lovers  of  gardening,  who  are  restrained  from 
indulging  in  their  favorite  pastime  by  our  long  six 
months  of  winter,  would  gladly  erect  small  glass  stnic- 
tures  in  which  to  prosecute  many  of  the  lighter  opera- 
tions of  gardening,  but  are  deterred  by  what  they  imag- 
ine to  be  the  excessive  cost.  In  this  chapter  an  attempt 
will  be  made  to  outline  methods  of  constructing  several 
forms  of  small  greenhouses  that  can  be  cheajily  erected, 
and  which  will  be  found  very  useful  and  entirely  satis- 
factory. Upon  many  town,  as  well  as  country  places, 
we  often  find  small  cold  frames,  or  cold  2)its,  in  which 
half  hardy  j^lants  can  be  stored  through  the  winter,  and 
in  which  many  of  the  hardier  vegetable  and  budding 
plants  can  be  started  and  grown.  At  best,  they  are  of 
little  value  in  forwarding  jjlants  during  the  severe  parts 
of  the  winter,  and  are  far  from  satisfactory  in  everyway. 

For  our  jn-esent  purjjose  a  house  is  needed,  perhaps 
ten  by  fifteen  feefc  in  area,  convenient  to  or  attached  to 
the  dwelling,  that  can  be  attended  to  in  all  weathers 
without  exjiosure,  and  that  can  be  cheaply  constructed 
and  maintained. 

ATTACHED     COSTSERYATORIES. 

It  is  frequently  desirable  to  have,  in  connection 
with  the  dwelling,  a  room  enclosed  with  glass,  in  which 


19G 


GREENHOUSE    CONSTEUCTIOIS". 


flowers  can  be  grown  or  exhibited.  The  iarge  structures 
that  are  sometimes  seen  do  not  differ,  in  their  princij)al 
features,  from  detached  conservatories,  and  need  no  con- 
sideration here.  Although  the  best  results,  so  far  as 
the  growth  of  the  plants  is  concerned,  cannot  be  obtained 
ill  a  lean-to  structure,  the  fact  that  small  conservatories 
can  be  placed  in  an  angle  of  the  dwelling,  where  the 
walls  of  the  house  will  form  the  end  and  rear  of  the  con- 


VERAKDA    CONSERVATORY. 

servatory,  and  thus  greatly  reduce  the  cost  of  construc- 
tion, leads  to  their  use  when  the  first  outlay  is  consid- 
ered. These  attached  conservatories,  in  the  lean-to 
style,  may  vary  in  width  from  six  to  fifteen  feet,  but  if 
anything  wider  than  this  is  desired,  it  will  be  best  to 
have  detached  houses,  or  to  use  some  other  form  of  roof. 
The  simplest  kind  of  a  conservatory  of  this  style  is 
made  from  an  ordinary  veranda,  in  which  the  spaces 


ATTACHED     CONSERVATORIES. 


i;»T 


between  tlic  side  posts  arc  filled  in  Aviih  glu.ss  nasli. 
These  can  be  taken  ont  in  the  summer,  if  desired,  and 
the  veranda  restored  to  its  ordinary  use.  By  the  addi- 
tion of  a  gla,es  roof,  far  better  results  can  be  obtained, 
however,  and  if  a  veranda  conservatory  is  to  be  built,  it 
will  be  found  cheaper  than  a  wooden  or  a  tin  roof.  It 
should  be  eight  or  nine 
feet  wide,  to  secure  the 
best  results,  althongh  a 
veranda  five  feet  wide 
will  answer  as  a  con- 
servatory. 

In  constructing 
these  veranda  conserva- 
tories, Fig.  109,  a  loca- 
tion on  the  south  side 
of  the  house  should  be 
selected,  as  a  rule,  al- 
though for  ferns  and 
similar  plants,  the  east, 
or  even  the  north  side 
i  s  preferable.  T  h  e 
framework  of  the  con- 
servatory should  be  put 
up  in  a  permanent  man- 
ner, as  should  the  en- 
tire roof,  but  it  will  be 
sometimes  found  best,  ^'^^-  ^O.  yeraxda  cox- 
if  the  glass  in  the  side  servatory   {Seciirm). 

and  ends  is  of  temjiorary  sashes,  so  arranged  that  they 
can  be  taken  out,  as  seen  in  cross  section.  Fig.  110.  The 
floor  should  be  at  the  same  height,  and  constructed  in 
the  same  manner  as  lor  an  ordinary  veranda,  althougli  a 
cement  floor  may  be  used  if  desired.  In  case  a  wooden 
floor  is  used,  the  veranda  should  be  closed  in  below,  or 
ceiled  against  the  floor  joists. 


198  GEEEI^HOUSE    COKSTEUCTIOlSr. 

If  designed  as  a  conservatory  for  flowers,  a  doorway 
in  the  wall  of  the  dwelling  should  be  arranged  in  the 
middle,  either  of  the  side  or  end,  and  in  case  the  con- 
servatory is  a  large  one,  it  will  be  convenient  to  have  an 
outer  door.  As  a  rule,  these  doors  should  be  opposite 
each  otlier.  It  is  also  an  excellent  plan  to  have  the  por- 
tion of  the  wall  of  the  house  adjoining  the  conservatory, 
of  glass.  The  posts  should  be  from  five  to  seven  feet 
liigh,  and  placed  five  feet  six  inches  ajiart.  At  the 
height  of  two  feet  a  sash  sill  should  be  jilaced,  and  the 
space  beneath  should  be  filled  in  to  correspond  with  the 
finish  of  the  house.  The  walls  of  the  vei'anda  above  this 
sill  may  be  of  permanent  sash  bars  and  glass,  or,  as  is 
better,  unless  it  is  to  be  used  as  a  conservatory  through- 
out the  year,  the  spaces  between  the  posts  may  be  filled 
in  with  glass  sash  that  can  be  taken  out  during  the 
summer. 

If  a  veranda  is  made  eight  feet  high  at  the  eaves, 
this  will  admit  of  the  placing  of  a  ventilating  sash  in 
the  front  wall,  but  iu  low  structures  it  will  have  to  be 
placed  in  the  roof.  The  conservatory  roof  should  have 
rafters  of  two  by  four  inch  cypress  running  from  each 
post  to  the  wall  of  the  house.  The  remaining  frame- 
work of  the  roof  will  consist  of  two  by  one  and  one- 
eighth  inch  sash  bars.  In  Fig.  110  is  shown  a  cross  sec- 
tion of  a  house  six  feet  wide,  from  which  the  details  for 
the  construction  of  the  walls  and  roof  can  be  ascertained, 
while  Eig.  109  gives  an  idea  of  the  exterior  appearance  of 
the  same  conservatory. 

If  the  amount  of  glass  exposed  is  not  too  large,  nec- 
essary heat  can  be  supplied  from  the  adjoining  living 
room  for  so-called  cool  house  plants,  ])ut  it  will  be  desir- 
able to  have  heat  directly  supplied  to  the.  room.  Hot 
water  or  steam  heating  pipes,  arranged  as  in  Fig.  110, 
will  be  desirable,  but  if  nothing  better  is  available,  one 
or  two  large  kerosene  heating  stoves  can  be  used,  pro- 


ATTACHED   COXSEKVATORIES. 


199 


200 


GREENHOUSE   CONSTEUCTIOH. 


vided  pipes  are  arranged  to  carry  off  the  gases  of 
combustion. 

If  more  elaborate  structures  are  desired,  tliey  should 
be  of  a  style  that  will  correspond  with  that  of  the  resi- 
dence. The  location  at  the  corner  of  the  house,  as  seen 
in  Fig.  Ill,  is  desirable,  as  light  can  be  obtained  from 
three  sides,  and  better  results  can  be  obtained  than  in  a 
yeranda  conservatory. 

DETACHED   GREENHOUSES  FOR   AMATEURS. 

It  frequently  happens  that  for  some  reason  it  is  not 
desirable  to  have  the  conservatory  attached  to  a  building, 
in  which  case  there  will  be  a  great  variety  of  structures 
from  which  to  select.     Here,   again,  the  lean-to  form 

will  be  found  a  cheap  one  to 
erect,  and  the  same  direc- 
tions apply  here  as  in  a  large 
house.  In  Fig.  112  is  pre- 
sented a  cross  section  of  a 
house  built  by  Chas.  Bar- 
nard, and  described  in  the 
American  Garden,  October, 
1800.'  The  walls  were  built 
as  shown  in  tl)e  engraving, 
sheathed  on  both  sides,  and 
with  a  layer  of  hair  felt 
inside.  A  cheaper  wall 
could  be  erected  by  double 
FIG.  112.  A  CHEAP  boarding  the  outside,  and 
HOUSE  [Section).  having    a    layer    of     heavy 

building  paper  between  the  boards.  The  outside  board- 
ing of  the  north  wall  extends  one  foot  above  the  roof, 
to  act  as  a  wind-break.  The  walls  measure  five  feet  six 
inches  outside,  and  the  roof  is  formed  of  hotbed  sash, 
the  joints  being  made  tight  with  battens.  Ventilation 
is  secured  through  a  cupola  in  the  center  of  the  ridge, 


PORTABLE    CO]SrSERVATORIES.  201 

The  base  of  this  is  twelve  inches  square,  and  the  circu- 
lation of  air  is  controlled  by  a  damper,  as  will  be  seen 
from  the  engraving.  If  other  forms  of  houses  are 
desired,  they  will  only  be  miniatures  of  the  large  ones 
described  in  previous  chapters. 

PORTABLE   CONSERVATORIES. 

Several  builders  make  a  specialty  of  supplying 
houses  of  the  kind.  Fig,  113  shows  one  of  these  houses 
put  up  by  Hitchings  &  Co.,  and  in  Fig.  114  is  seen  the 
same  house  with  a  portion  of  the  sash  removed.  As 
will  be  seen,  the  houses  are  built  with  an  iron  frame, 
similar  to  that  used  in  large  houses,  and  covered  with 
sash  that  can  be  very  quickly  put  in  place.  They  are 
supplied  with  hot  w'ater  heating  apparatus,  and  ventilat- 
ing machinery.  Besides  being  portable,  the  houses  are 
extensible,  and  another  section  can  be  added  with  little 
trouble  at  any  time.  A  house  eight  by  sixteen  feet,  with 
heating  and  ventilating  apparatus,  costs  about  1360.  It 
makes  a  very  durable  house,  and  is,  in  every  way,  first 
class. 

If  one  cannot  afford  so  expensive  a  house,  a  very 
satisfactory  conservatory  can  be  built  by  using  four  by 
four  inch  posts  for  the  walls,  set  four  feet  apart,  and 
with  every  other  post  four  feet  high,  the  others  being 
'cut  off  at  the  height  of  two  and  one-half  feet ;  sash,  sills, 
plates,  end  rafters  and  ridge  pieces  can  be  obtained,  cut 
in  the  desired  shapes,  at  any  wood-working  factory,  or 
from  dealers  in  greenhouse  materials.  The  roof  may  be 
made  of  fixed  sash  bars  or  of  temporary  sash. 

The  heating  apparatus  for  a  narrow  house  will  cost 
from  four  to  five  dollars  per  linear  foot,  and  the  venti- 
lating apparatus  from  ten  to  fifty  cents,  according  to  the 
kind  used.  The  lumber  can  be  estimated  at  about  13.00 
per  linear  foot,  and  the  glass  will  not  be  far  from  11.50 
per  foot,  while  the  labor  of  carpenters  and  painters  will 


202 


GKEENHOUSE     C0JSSTfiUCTI01!f. 


Bi 


PORTABLE   COIfSEEVATOUIES. 


^03 


204 


GREENHOUSE   COXSTEUCTIOK. 


be  about  $2.50  i)er  foot,  or  a  total  of  1225  to  $250  for  a 
substantial  house  fifteen  by  twenty  feet,  with  heating 
apparatus  and  benches. 


THE    BASEMENT    PIT. 


There  are  some  objections  to  the  structure  to  which 
tlie  above  name  has  been  given,  the  i^rinci^jal  ones  being 
that  it  is  somewhat  difficult  of  access,  that  it  is  incon- 
spicuous, and  that  the  plants  grown  there  do  not  give 
the  pleasure  they  would,  Avere  it  entirelv  above  ground 


^ 


H 


mm 


i'. '.'.'.' 


B 


I.I.I 


I    I  .  I  .  I    I 


I'll' 


"^^ 


IZL 


FIG.    115.       GROUND   PLAN   OF   BASEMENT   PIT. 

and  separated  from  one  of  the  living  rooms  by  a  glass 
partition.  The  points  claimed  for  the  basement  pit  are, 
that  it  is  very  easily  heated,  owing  to  the  comparatively 
small  area  of  exposed  glass,  and  its  cheapness  of  con- 
struction, and  every  one  of  the  objections  urged  against 
it  could  be  overcome  by  raising  the  structure  to  the 
ground  level  and  supjilying  the  needed  glass  partition 
and  door. 

For  the  location,  it  is  best  to  select  the  south  side  of 
the  dwelling,  if  possible,  although  the  west,  or  east,  or  a 
point  between  would  answer.  If  it  can  be  situated 
where  a  cellar  window  is  located,  all  the  better.  The 
wall  is  torn  away  so  as  to  aUord  an  oj^ening  three  feet 


TIIK   J5A.SEMKNT    PIT. 


ion 


wide,  in  which  u  ghiss  door  should  bo  placed.  The  cxcii- 
vation  is  then  made,  and  the  wall  of  masonry  laid  u[) 
to  the  general  level  outside  (Fig.  115).  The  iiigliest 
point  of  the  roof  should  be  located  four  feet  above  the 
top  of  the  foundation.  Pour  by  six  inch  sills,  Fig.  110, 
{a)  should  then  be  put  down,  and  upon  these  four  by 
four  inch  posts  (J)  twenty  inches  higli,  aiul  with  rabljcts 
for  glass,  should  be  jdaced  at  Iho  corners  and  at  inter- 
vals of  five  feet  along  the  side 
and  ends.  The  two  by  five 
inch  plate  is  then  placed,  as 
seen  at  (c),  and  a  four  by  two 
inch  fascia  (d)  should  be  set 
into  the  tops  of  the  posts 
along  the  front,  and  two  by 
four  inch  rafters  (/)  should 
extend  from  the  top  of  the 
posts  to  the  wall  of  the  house, 
where  they  should  be  sup- 
ported b}^  a  four  by  one  inch 
ridge  board.  A  gutter  (e),  if 
desired,  will  complete  the  ex- 
terior of  the  structure,  with 
the  exception  of  the  sash  bars, 
purlins,  ventilators,  and  glaz- 


FIG 


IIG.       DETAILS   FOB 
BASEMENT    PIT. 

ing,  which  will  not  differ  from  the  same  parts  of  a  green- 
house. The  interior  arrangement  will  depend  upon  the 
uses  to  which  it  is  to  be  put.  The  doorway  may  be  in 
the  center  of  the  back  wall,  or,  better  5^et,  about  three 
and  one-half  feet  from  the  east  end.  If  desired,  a  flat 
table  (C)  three  feet  wide,  for  starting  cuttings  and  seed- 
lings, and  for  the  growing  of  vegetable  and  bedding 
plants,  can  extend  along  the  west  and  south  sides,  and 
on  the  east  (A)  and  north  (B)  sides  tiers  of  shelves  may 
be  placed,  on  which  the  larger  plants  can  be  arranged. 
The   amount   of   heat   required   for  such   a  house  Avill 


206 


GREEN'HOUSE    CON'STEUCTIOif. 


depend  considerably  upon  the  kinds  of  plants  to  be 
grown,  as  for  many  grceuliouse  plants  a  temperature  of 
forty-five  to  fifty  degrees  is  ample  at  night,  and  if  it 
occasionally  drops  below  forty  degrees  no  harm  will  be 
done,  while  most  of  the  so-called  stove  plants  would  be 
injured  if  the  temperature  remains  below  sixty  degrees 
for  any  length  of  time.  If  the  pit  opens  into  a  large 
cellar,  particularly  if  it  contains  a  hot  air  furnace,  or 
other  heating  apparatus,  there  will  be  little  danger  of 
frost,  except  in  severe  cold  weather,  when  an  oil  stove 
placed  in  the  room  will  be  all  that  is  necessary.     Eor 


PIG.    117.     CELLAR-WAY  co:n^seryatoey   {PersjwcUve). 

stove  plants,  the  use  of  a  second  stove  in  severe  weather 
would  probably  be  required.  If  the  dwelling  is  heated 
by  hot  water  or  steam,  of  course  the  matter  of  heating 
would  be  very  simple,  and,  if  not,  the  next  most  satisfac- 
tory plan  will  be  to  use  a  small  hot  water  heater,  or  to 
obtain  heat  l^y  placing  a  coil  in  a  hot  air  furnace  and 
connecting  it  with  hot  water  heating  pipes  in  the  con- 
servatory. Directions  for  arranging  the  pipes,  etc.,  will 
be  found  in  the  chapter  on  Heating  Greenhouses. 

Wliei-c  only  a  small  cold  frame  or  hot  bed  is  wanted, 
:t  can  be  arranged  just  outside  a  cellar  window.  If  a 
frame  four  by  two  feet  is  sunk  in  the  ground  and  covered 
with  a  hotbed  sash,  the  pit  thus  made  can  be  used  for 


THE    BASEMEXT   PIT. 


207 


growing  (|uite  a  variety  of  grecnliousc  plants,  and  for 
starting  plants  in  the  spring.  In  severe  Aveather  a  light 
covering  may  ho  retpiirod  to  keep  out  frost,  althoiigli  if 
.the  cellar  contains  a  furnace  this  will  not  he  necessary, 
in  ordinary  winters,  except  in  the  colder  sections  of  the 
country.     A  writer  in  American  Garden  describes  a  cold 


FTG.    lis.       OELL\R-WAY    COXSERTATORY    (Ser/ion). 

pit  arranged  in  the  outside  cellar-way  of  a  house. 
The  doors  should  be  removed  and  replaced  hy  hotbed 
sash,  as  in  Fig.  117,  which  shows  the  appearance  of  the 
cellar-way  from  the  outside.  The  stairs,  Fig.  118,  can 
be  used  as  shelves  for  the  plants,  and  it  will  make  a  good 
place  for  wintering  any  half-hardy  plants.     By  the  use 


208 


GREENHOUSE    CONSTRUCTION. 


of  shutters  and  mats  the  frost  can  be  kept  out,  even 
without  opening  the  inner  doors.  If  artificial  heat  can 
be  provided,  a  variety  of  plants  can  be  grown. 


INDEX. 


Amateurs,  gi-eeiihonsei5  for  

Arrangement  of  houses 

Harnanl  lieater 

Bench  bottoms,  slate 

Bench  bottoms,  tile 

Bench  bottoms,  wooden 

Bench  frame,  angle  iron 

Bench  frame,  gas  pipe  for 

Bench  frame,  wooden 

Benclies,  greenhouse 

Boiler,  size  of,  to  use 

Boilers,  steam,  and  their  loca- 
tion  

Braces  and  posts ■. 

Bracket  brace  for  roof 

Brads  .and  points  for  glazing. . . 

Brick  walls,  construction  of.. . . 

Builders,  greenhouse 

Butted  glass 

"Challenge"  ventilating  ma- 
chine  

Changes  of  direction  and  level 
in  lieating  pipes 

Clieap  ventilating  machiue  — 

Cold  frames  and  pits 

Combined  wood  and  iron 
houses 

Commercial  establishments 

Connectiug  different  systems.. 

Conservatories,  attached 

Conservatories,  iron  frame 

Conservatories,  portable 

Conservatories,  small,  heating 
of 

Conservatories,  use  and  con- 
struction of 

Conservafiuy.  basement 

Conservatory.  <-ellai\vay 

Continuous  vent  ilat ion 

Cool  houses 

Curvilinear  houses 

Dealers  in  greenhouse  material 

Details  for  iron  and  wood  roof 

Details  for  wooden  roof 

Double  and  single  strength 
glass 

Drip  gutters  in  sash  bars 

Even  span  houses 

Fire  hetit  for  orchard  houses.. . 

Fire  hotbeds 

Fire  surface,  arrangement  of.. 


80 


105  Fluted  .and  rough  plate  gla,ss.. 
21     Flues  for  heating  conservalo- 

13,5  rios 

H-4     Forms  of  grceidiouses 

8U     Franu's.  cold 

(ialvanized  iron  sash  b.ars 

Glass  and  glazing 

(ilass,  grades  of 

Glass,  refraction  of  light  by 

(Jlass,  size  of 

(Jlass,  strength  of 

Glazing,  methods  of 

Glazing  strip 

(iraperies,  forms  and  construc- 
tion of 

Greenhouse,  a  cheap,  for  ama- 
teurs   

Greeidiouse  benches 

Greenhouse  hratlng 

Greenhouses,  arrangement  of.. 

(ireenhouses  for  ainaleurs 

Grout  walls,  construction  of... 

Gutters,  wooden 

I  leater,  Barnard 

lieater,  Carmody 

Heater,  Furman 

Healer,  Hitchings'  base  burn- 
i"g 

Heater,  Hitchings'  corrugated. 

Heater,  Spence 

Heater,  Weathereds'  conical... 

H(>alers,  hot  water,  forn)s  of... 

Heaters,  hot   water,  size  to  use 

Healing,  cx]ierimental  tests... 

Healing,  lines  for 

Healing  greenhouses 

Heating,  I'olinaise  system  of. .. 

Healing  with  hot  wiiter 

Heating  with  steam 

Helliwell  patent  glazing 

llistorv  of  greenhouses 

Hotbeds,  lire 

Hoi  beds,  the  making  of 

Hotbed  yards 

Hot  w.iier  heaters,  jjoints  for.. 

Hot  water  nniler  pressure 

Hot  water  vs.  steam 

Interior  arrangement  of  con- 
servatories   

Iron  houses 

Iron  posts  and  silla 

209 


1C5 
47 

50 

a; 

50 
57 
5S 
5'J 
C5 


200 

7G 

90 

185 

1<I5 

25 

20 

135 

115 

11!» 

121 

no 

117 
lie. 

115 
120 
l.'il 
1.T0 

IN) 
137 

!tl 
!2.! 

•It! 
1 
1.38 
1C..3 
102 

'Xi 
113 
12'J 


210 


GREENHOUSE   CONSTRUCTION. 


Iron  rafters  and  pnrlins 40 

Iron  sasli  bars,  galvanized 47 

Lean-to  houses —     12 

Lettuce  houses,  construction  of  1&4 
Location  and  arrangement  of 

houses 21 

Machinery,  ventilating 69 

Masonry  walls 24 

Mats  and  shutters IGl 

Measuring  the  pitch 53 

Narrow  houses,  piping  for 110 

New  departure  ventilating 

machine 72 

New  methods  of  glazing C6 

North  side  i)n)pagating  houses  157 
Orchard  liouses, construction  of  182 
Orcliid  houses,  construction  of .  177 

Outside  shafting 74 

Overhead  piping 108 

Over  vs.  under  bench  piping. . .  103 

Paint  bulb G4 

Fainting  and  shading 85 

Paradigm  patent  glazing 47 

Permanent  sash  bars 37 

Pipe,  amount  and  size  of,  for 

hot  water 104 

Pipe,  amount  and  size  of,  for 

steam 125 

Pipes,  slope  of 99 

Pipes  and  piping  for  hot  water  97 
Pi])es  and  piping  for  steam  —  124 
Piping,  arrangement  of,  for  hot 

water 115 

Piping,  arrangement  of,  for 

steam 124 

Piping,  over  vs.  under  bencli  ..  103 

Pits,  basement 204 

Pits,  cold 1C5 

Pitch,  the  optimum 51 

Pitch  of  the  roof 49 

Plan  for  commercial  establish- 
ment    141 

Plates  and  gutters 29 

Points  and  brads,  glazing 60 

Polmaise  system  of  glazing —  137 

Portalile  conservalories 201 

Portable  frames 160 

Portable  roof .35 

Posts  and  braces,  iron 43 

Posts  iind  sills,  iron 32 

Potting  room,  arrangement  of.     22 

Propagating  case 158 

Propagating  houses,  construc- 
tion of 157 

Purlin,  gas  pipe 42 


Purlins  and  rafters,  iron 40 

Putty  and  its  application 59 

Putty  bulbs  and  machines 64 

Rafters  and  purlins,  iron 40 

Refraction  of  light  by  glass 50 

Repainting  greenhouses 87 

Ridge  and  furrow  houses 11 

Ridge,  size  and  form  of 38 

Roofs,  const  ruci  ion  of ,33 

Roofs,  details  for 38 

Roofs,  pitch  of 49 

Rose  houses,  benches  for 140 

Rose  houses,  construction  of. ..  142 

Rose  liouses,  cost  of 149 

Sash,  ventilating 68 

Sash  bar's,  forms  of 34 

Sash  bars,  metallic 45 

Shading  greeidiouses 88 

Short  span  to  the  soutii 55 

Shutters  and  mats 161 

Side-liill  houses 14 

Sills  and  ]iosts,  Iron 32 

Size  and  amount  of  pipe  for  hot 

water 104 

Size  and  amount  of   pipe  for 

steam 125 

Size  of  glass 57 

Slate  for  benches 84 

Slope  of  pipes 99 

Solid  beds 84 

Span  roof  houses 6 

"Standard"  ventilating  appa- 

r.atus 72 

Steam  heating 123 

Steam  vs.  hot  water 129 

Stove  houses 174 

Strip,  Gasser's  glazing 65 

Three-quai'ter  span  houses 16 

Tile  for  bcnclios 82 

Valves  and  cxijansion  tank 112 

Ventilating  machine,  a  cheap..  74 
Ventilating    macliine,    "Chal- 
lenge '■ 74 

Ventilating  macliine,  "New  De- 

p.art  lire  " 72 

Ventilating  macliine,   "Stand- 
ard " 72 

Ventilating  shafting 70 

Ventilators 67 

Veranda  conservatory 196 

AValls  for  greenhouses 24 

Water  bencli  for  propagating 

houses 158 

Wooden  walls,  construction  of    27 

Work  room,  arrangement  of. . .  22 


"•  *••  -Sffife  College 


OF 


BoPl'^rjue^^ 


A.*^ 


ov- 


SENT     FREE    ON       APPLICATION. 


DESCRIPTIVE  CATALOGUE 


RURAL  BOOKS, 

CONTAINING  IIG  8vo.  PAGES, 

Pbofuselt  Illustkated,  and  giving  Full  Descriptions  ov 
Nearly  6«0  Wokks  on  the  Following  Subjects* 

Farm  and  Garden, 

Fruits,  Flowers,  Etc. 

Cattle,  Sheep,  and  Swine, 
Dogs,  Horses,  Riding,  Etc., 

Poultr}',  Pigeons,  and  Bees, 

Angliiig  and  Fishing, 
Boating,  Canoeing,  and  Sailing, 

Field  Sports  and  Natural  History, 

Hunting,  Shooting,  Etc, 
Architecture  and  Building, 

Landscape  Gardening, 

Household  and  Miscellaneous. 


PUBLISHEE«  AND    IMPORTERS: 

ORANGE  JUDD  COflPANY, 

^2  &  S4  Lafayette  Place,  New  York. 


Books  will  be  Forwarded,  postpaid,  oo  receipt  of  Price. 


2  STANDARD  BOOKS. 

Mushrooms ;    How  to  Grow  Them. 

Any  one  who  has  an  ordinary  house  cellar,  ■woodshed  or  bam,  can 
grow  Mushrooms.  This  is  the  most  practical  work  on  the  subject 
ever  written,  and  the  only  book  on  growing  Mushrooms  published 
in  America.  The  author  describes  how  he  grows  Mushrooms,  and 
how  they  are  grown  for  profit  by  the  leading  market  gardeners,  and 
for  home  use  by  the  most  successful  private  growers.  Engravings 
drawn  from  nature  expressly  for  this  work.  By  "Wm.  Falconer. 
Cloth.    Price,  posti^aid.  1.50 

Land  Draining:. 

A  Handbook  for  Farmers  on  the  Principles  and  Practice  of  Drain- 
ing, by  Manly  Miles,  giving  the  results  of  his  extended  exjjerience 
in  laying  tile  drains.  The  directions  for  the  laying  out  and  the 
construction  of  tile  drains  will  enable  the  farmer  to  avoid  the 
errors  of  imperfect  construction,  and  the  disappointment  that 
must  necessarily  follow.  This  manual  for  practical  farmers  will 
also  be  found  convenient  for  references  in  regard  to  many  ques- 
tions that  may  arise  in  crop  growing,  aside  from  the  special  sub- 
jects of  drainage  of  which  it  treats.    Cloth,  12mo.  1.00 

Allen's  New  American  Farm  Book. 

The  very  best  work  on  the  subject;  comiirising  all  that  can  be  con- 
densed into  an  available  voltune.  Originally  by  Richard  L.  Allen. 
Revised  and  greatly  enlarged  by  Lewis  F.  Allen.    Cloth,  12mo.    2.50 

Henderson's  Gardening  for  Profit. 

By  Peter  Henderson.  The  standard  work  on  Market  and  Family 
Gardening.  The  successful  experience  of  the  author  for  more  than 
thirty  years,  and  his  willingness  to  tell,  as  he  does  in  this  work,  the 
secret  of  his  success  for  the  benefit  of  others,  enables  him  to  give 
most  valuable  information.  The  book  is  profusely  illustrated. 
Cloth,  12mo.  2.00 

Henderson's  Gardening  for  Pleasure. 

A  guide  to  the  amateur  in  the  fruit,  vegetable  and  flower  garden, 
Avith  full  descriptions  for  the  greenhouse,  conservatory  and  window 
garden.  It  meets  the  wants  of  all  classes  in  country,  city  and  vil- 
lage who  keeij  a  garden  for  their  own  enjoyment  rather  than  for 
the  sale  of  jiroducts.  By  Peter  Henderson.  Finely  Illustrated. 
Cloth,  12ino.  2.00 

Johnson's  How  Crops  Grow. 

New  Edition.  A  Treatise  on  the  Chemical  Composition,  Structure 
and  Life  of  the  Plant.  Revised  Edition.  This  book  is  a  guide  to 
the  knowledge  of  agricultural  plants,  their  composition,  their 
structure  and  modes  of  development  and  growth; of  the  complex 
organizations  of  plants,  and  the  use  of  the  parts;  the  germination 
of  seeds,  and  the  food  of  plants  obtained  both  from  the  air  and 
the  soil.  The  book  is  a  valuable  one  to  all  real  students  of  agricul- 
ture. With  numerous  illustrations  and  tables  of  analysis.  By  Prof. 
Samuel  W.  Johuaou  of  Yale  College.    Cloth,  12mo.  8.00 


STANDARD  BOOKS.  8 

Johnson's  How  Crops  Feed. 

A  Treatise  on  the  Atmosphere  and  the  Soil,  as  related  In  the 
Kutrition  of  AgricuUural  I'lants.  This  volume— the  <ompaiii()ii  and 
complement  to  "How  Crops  Grow"— has  been  welcuni*!.!  l.y  tliose 
Who  appreciate  the  scientific  aspects  of  agriculture.  lUustrated. 
By  Prof.  Samuel  "NV.  Johnson.    Cloth,  12mo.  2.00 

Market  Gardening:  and  Farm  Notes. 

By  Barnet  Landrcth.  Experiences  and  Observations  for  bolh 
North  and  South,  of  interest  to  the  Amateur  Gardener,  Trucker  and 
Farmer.  A  novel  feature  of  the  book  is  tlie  calendar  of  farm  and 
garden  operations  for  each  month  of  the  year;  the  chapters  on 
fertilizers,  transplanting,  succession  and  rotation  of  crops,  the 
packing,  shijiping  and  marketing  of  vegetables,  will  be  especially 
useful  to  market  gardeners.    Cloth,  12nio.  1.00 

Forest  Planting:. 

A  Ti-eatise  on  the  Care  of  Woodlands  and  the  Restoration  of  the 
Denuded  Timber-Lands  on  Blains  and  Mountains.  By  H.  Kicholas 
Jarchow,  LL.  D.  The  author  has  fully  "described  those  European 
methods  which  h-ave  proved  to  be  most  useful  in  maintaining  the 
superb  forests  of  the  old  world.  This  experience  has  been  adai^ted 
to  the  different  climates  and  trees  of  America,  full  instructions  be- 
ing given  for  forest  planting  on  our  various  kinds  of  soil  and  sub- 
soil, whether  on  mountain  or  valley.    Illustrated,  12mo.  1.50 

Harris'  Talks  on  Manures. 

By  Joseph  Harris,  M.  S.,  author  of  "Walks  and  Talks  on  the  Farm," 
"Harris  on  the  Pig,"  etc.  Revised  and  enlarged  by  the  autlior.  A 
series  of  familiar  and  practical  talks  between  the  author  and  the 
Deacon,  the  Doctor,  and  other  neighbors,  on  the  whole  subject  of 
manures  and  fertilizers:  including  a  chapter  especially  written  for 
it,  by  Sir  John  Bennet  Lawes  of  Rothamsted,  England.  Cloth, 
12mo.  l-'^5 

Truck  Farming:  at  the  South. 

A  work  which  gives  the  experience  of  a  successful  grower  of  vege- 
tables or  "  truck"  for  Northern  markets.  Essential  to  any  one  who 
contemplates  entering  this  promising  lield  of  Agriculture.  By  A. 
Oemler  of  Georgia.    Illustrated,  elotli,  12mo.  1-50 

Sweet  Potato  Culture. 

Giving  full  instructions  from  starting  the  plants  to  harvesting  and 
storing  the  crop.  Witli  a  chapter  on  the  Chinese  Yam.  By  James 
Fitz,  Keswich,  Va.,  author  of  "Southern  Apple  and  Peach  Culture." 
Cloth,  12mo.  •*''' 

Heinrich's  Window  Flower  Garden. 

The  author  is  a  practical  florist,  and  this  enterprising  volume  cm- 
bodies  his  personal  experiences  in  Window  Gardening  during  a 
long  period.  New  and  enlarged  edition.  By  Julius  J.  Heinrich. 
Fimy  illustrated.    Cloth,  12mo.  *'* 


4  STANDARD  BOOKS. 

Greenhouse  Construction. 

By  Prof.  L.  R.  Taft.  A  complete  treatise  on  Greenhouse  structures 
and  arrangements  of  the  various  forms  and  styles  of  riant  Houses 
for  professional  florists  as  well  as  amateurs.  All  the  best  and  most 
approved  structures  are  so  fully  and  clearly  described  that  anyone 
■who  desires  to  build  a  Greenhouse  will  have  no  difficulty  in  deter- 
mining the  kind  best  suited  to  his  purpose.  The  modern  and  most 
successful  methods  of  heating  and  ventilating  are  fully  treated 
upon.  Special  chapters  are  devoted  to  liouses  used  for  the  growing 
of  one  kind  of  plants  exclusively.  The  construction  of  hotbeds 
and  frames  receives  appropriate  attention.  Over  one  hundred  ex- 
cellent illustrations,  specially  engraved  for  this  work,  make  every 
point  clear  to  the  reader  and  add  considerably  to  the  artistic  ap- 
pearance of  the  book.    Cloth,  12mo.  1.50 

Bulbs  and  Tuberous-Rooted  Plants. 

ByC.L.  Allen.  A  complete  treatise  on  the  History,  Description, 
Methods  of  Propagation  and  full  Directions  for  the  successful  cul- 
ture of  Bulbs  in  the  garden,  Dwelling  and  Greenhouse.  As  gener- 
ally treated,  bulbs  are  an  expensive  luxury,  while,  when  properly 
managed,  they  afford  the  greatest  amount  of  pleasure  at  the  least 
cost.  The  author  of  this  book  has  for  many  years  made  bulb  grow- 
ing a  specialty,  and  is  a  recognized  authority  on  their  cultivation 
and  management.  The  ilhislralions  which  embellish  this  work 
have  been  drawn  from  nature,  and  have  been  engraved  especially 
for  this  book.  The  cultural  directions  are  plainly  stated,  practical 
and  to  the  point.    Cloth,  12mo.  2.00 

Henderson's  Practical  Floriculture. 

By  Peter  Henderson.  A  guide  to  the  successful  propagation  and 
cultivation  of  florists'  i^lants.  The  work  is  not  one  for  florists  and 
gardeners  only,  but  the  amateur's  wants  are  constantly  kept  in 
mind,  and  we  have  a  very  complete  treatise  on  the  cultivation  of 
flowers  under  glass,  or  in  the  open  air,  suited  to  those  who  grow 
flowers  for  pleasure  as  well  as  those  who  make  them  a  matter  of 
trade.  Beautifully  illustrated.  New  and  enlarged  edition.  Cloth, 
12mo.  1.50 

Long:*s  Ornamental  Gardening-  for  Americans. 

A  Treatise  on  Beautifying  Homes,  Rural  Districts  and  Cemeteries. 
A  plain  and  practical  work  at  a  moderate  price,  with  numerous 
illustrations  and  instructions  so  plain  that  they  may  be  readily 
followed.  By  Elias  A.  Long,  Landscape  Architect.  Illustrated, 
Cloth,  12mo.  2.00 

The  Propagation  of  Plants. 

By  Andrew  S.  Fuller.  Illustrated  with  numerous  engravings.  An 
eminently  practical  and  useful  M'ork.  Describing  the  process  of 
hybridizing  and  crossing  species  aiul  varieties,  and  also  the  many 
different  modes  by  which  cultivated  plants  may  be  propagated  and 
multiplied.    Cloth,  12mo.  '  JJK) 


STAITDAED  BOOKS.  5 

Parsons  on  the  Rose. 

By  Samuel  B.  Parsons.  A  treatise  on  the  propagation,  cnltnro  and 
history  of  the  rose.  New  and  revised  edition.  In  his  work  upon 
the  rose,  Mi\  Parsons  has  tjatliered  up  iho  curious  legends  concern- 
ing the  flower,  and  gives  us  an  idea  of  the  esteem  iu  whieli  it  was 
held  in  former  times.  A  simple  garden  elassifleation  has  heen 
adopted,  and  the  leading  varieties  under  each  class  enumerated 
and  briefly  described.  The  chapters  on  multiplication,  cultivation 
and  training  are  very  full,  and  the  work  is  altogether  one  of  the 
most  complete  before  the  public.    Illustrated.    Cloth,  12mo.         1.00 

Henderson's  Handbook  of  Plants. 

This  new  edition  comprises  about  fifty  per  cent,  more  genera  than 
the  former  one,  and  embraces  the  botanical  name,  derivation, 
natural  order,  etc.,  together  with  a  short  history  of  the  different 
genera,  concise  instructions  for  their  propagation  and  culture,  and 
all  the  leading  local  or  common  English  names,  together  witii  a 
comprehensive  glossary  of  Botanical  and  Technical  terms.  Plain 
instructions  are  also  given  for  the  cultivation  of  the  principal  veg- 
etables, fruits  and  flowers.    Cloth,  large  8vo.  4.00 

Barry's  Fruit  Garden. 

By  P.  Barry.  A  standard  work  on  Fruit  and  Fruit  Trees ;  the  author 
having  had  over  thirty  years' practical  experience  at  the  head  of 
one  of  the  largest  nurseries  in  this  country.  New  edition  revised 
up  to  date.  Invaluable  to  all  fridt  growers.  Uluitrated.  Cloth, 
12mo.  2.00 

Fulton's  Peach  Culture. 

This  is  the  only  i>ractieal  guide  to  Peach  Culture  on  the  Delawara 
Peninsula,  and  is  the  best  work  upon  the  subject  of  peach  growing 
for  those  who  would  be  successful  in  that  culture  in  any  part  of 
the  country.  It  has  been  thoroughly  revised  and  a  large  portion  of 
itrewitten,  by  Hon.  J.  Alexander  Fulton,  the  author,  bringuig  it- 
down  to  date.    Cloth,  12mo.  l-W 

Strawberry  Culturist. 

By  Andrew  S.  Fuller.  Containing  the  History,  Sexuality,  Field  and 
Garden  Culture  of  Strawberries,  forcing  or  pot  culture,  how  to 
grow  from  seed,  hybridizing,  and  all  information  necessary  to  en- 
able everybody  to  raise  their  own  strawberries,  togetlier  with  a 
descriptionof  new  varieties  and  a  list  of  the  best  of  the  old  sorts. 
Fully  illustrated.    Flexible  cloth,  12mo.  -25 

Fuller's  Small  Fruit  Culturist. 

By  Andrew  S.  Fuller.  Rewritten,  enlarged,  and  brought  fully  up  to 
the  present  time.  The  book  covers  the  wliole  ground  of  propagatiii|r 
Small  Fruits,  their  ctdture,  varieties,  packing  for  market,  etc.  It  Is 
very  finely  and  thoroughly  illustrated,  and  makes  an  adndrable 
companion  to  "The  Grape  Culturist,"  by  the  same  well  known 
autlior.  ^-^ 


6  STAND  A  ED   BOOKS. 

Fuller's  Grape  Culturist. 

By  A.  S.  Fuller.  This  is  one  of  the  very  best  of  works  on  the  Cnl- 
ture  of  tlie  Hardy  Grapes,  witli  full  directions  for  all  departments 
of  propagation,  culture,  etc.,  with  150  excellent  engravings,  illus- 
trating i^lanting,  training,  grafting,  etc.    Cloth,  12mo.  1.50 

Quinn's  Pear  Culture  for  Profit. 

Teaching  How  to  Raise  Pears  intelligently,  and  with  the  best  re- 
sults, how  to  find  out  the  character  of  the  soil,  the  best  methods  of 
preparing  it,  the  best  varieties  to  select  under  existing  conditions, 
the  best  modes  of  planting,  i^runing,  fertilizing,  grafting,  and  utiliz- 
ing the  ground  before  the  trees  come  into  bearing,  and  finally  of 
gathering  and  isacking  for  market.  Hlustrated.  By  r.  T.  Quinn, 
practical  horticulturist.    Cloth,  12mo  1.00 

Husmann's  American  Grape  Growing:  and  Wine-Making:. 

By  George  Husmann  of  Talcoa  vineyards,  Kapa,  California.  New 
and  enlarged  edition.  With  contributions  from  well  know  grape- 
growers,  giving  a  wide  range  of  experience.  The  author  of  this 
book  is  a  recognized  authority  on  the  subject.    Cloth,  12mo.         1.50 

White's  Cranberry  Culture. 

Contents: — Natural  History. — History  of  Cultivation. — Choice  of 
Location. — Preparing  the  Ground. — Planting  the  Vines. — Manage- 
ment of  Meadows. — Flooding. — Enemies  and  Difficulties  Overcome. 
— Picking. — Keeping. — Profit  and  Loss.— Letters  from  Practical 
Growers.— Insects  Injurioiis  to  the  Cranberry.  By  Joseph  J.  White, 
a  practical  grower.  Hlustrated.  Cloth,  12mo.  New  and  revised 
edition.  1.25 

Fuller's  Practical  Forestey. 

A  Treatise  on  the  Propagation,  Planting  and  Cultivation,  with  a 
description  and  the  botanical  and  i^roper  names  of  all  the  indigen- 
ous trees  of  the  United  States,  both  Evergreen  and  Deciduous,  with 
Notes  on  a  large  number  of  the  most  valuable  Exotic  Species.  By 
Andrew  S.  Fuller,  author  of  "Grape  Culturist,"  "Small  Fruit  Cul- 
turist," etc.  1.50 

Stewart's  Irrigation  for  the  Farm,  Garden  and  Orchard. 

This  work  is  offered  to  those  American  Farmers  and  other  cultiva- 
tors of  the  soil  who,  from  painful  experience,  can  readily  appre- 
ciate the  losses  which  result  from  the  scarcity  of  water  at  critical 
periods.    By  Henry  Stewart.    Fully  illustrated.    Cloth,  12mo.      1.59 

Quinn's  Money  in  the  Garden. 

By  P.  T.  Quinn.  The  author  gives  in  a  plain,  practical  style,  in- 
structions on  three  distinct,  although  closely  connected  branches 
of  gardening — the  kitchen  garden,  market  garden,  and  field  culture, 
from  successful  practical  experience  for  a  term  of  years.  Illustra- 
ted.   Cloth,  12mo.  1.60 


